Paper
Sam Vaknin’s Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web SitesSigmund Freud said that we have an uncanny reaction to the inanimate. This is probably because we know that – despite pretensions and layers of philosophizing – we are nothing but recursive, self aware, introspective, conscious machines. Special machines, no doubt, but machines althesame.
The series of James bond movies constitutes a decades-spanning gallery of human paranoia. Villains change: communists, neo-nazis, media moguls. But one kind of villain is a fixture in this psychodrama, in this parade of human phobias: the machine. James Bond always finds himself confronted with hideous, vicious, malicious machines and automata.
It was precisely to counter this wave of unease, even terror, irrational but all-pervasive, that Isaac Asimov, the late Sci-fi writer (and scientist) invented the Three Laws of Robotics:
A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm
A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws
Many have noticed the lack of consistency and the virtual inapplicability of these laws put together. First, they are not the derivative of any coherent worldview and background. To be properly implemented and to avoid a potentially dangerous interpretation of them – the robots in which they are embedded must be also equipped with a reasonably full model of the physical and of the human spheres of existence. Devoid of such a context, these laws soon lead to intractable paradoxes (experiences as a nervous breakdown by one of Asimov’s robots). Conflicts are ruinous in automata based on recursive functions (Turing machines) as all robots must be. Godel pointed at one such self destructive paradox in the “Principia Mathematica” ostensibly comprehensive and self consistent logical system. It was enough to discredit the whole magnificent edifice constructed by Russel and Whitehead over a decade.
Some will argue against this and say that robots need not be automata in the classical, Church-Turing, sense. That they could act according to heuristic, probabilistic rules of decision making. There are many other types of functions (non-recursive) that can be incorporated in a robot. True, but then, how can one guarantee full predictability of behaviour? How can one be certain that the robots will fully and always implement the three laws? Only recursive systems are predictable in principle (their complexity makes even this sometimes not feasible).
This article will deal with some commonsense, basic problems immediately discernible upon close inspection of the Laws. The next article in this series will analyse the Laws from a few vantage points: philosophy, artificial intelligence and some systems theories.
An immediate question springs to mind : HOW will a robot identify a human being? Surely, in an age of perfect androids, constructed of organic materials, no superficial, outer scanning will suffice. Structure and composition will not be sufficient factors of differentiation. There are two possibilities to settle this very practical issue: one is to endow the robot with the ability to conduct a Converse Turing Test, the other is to somehow “barcode” all the robots by implanting some signalling device inside them. Both present additional difficulties.
In the second case, the robot will never be able to positively identify a human being. He will surely identify robots. This is ignoring, for discussion’s sake, defects in manufacturing or loss of the implanted identification tag – if the robot will get rid of the tag, presumably this will fall under the “defect in manufacturing” category. But the robot will be forced to make a binary selection: one type of physical entities will be classified as robots – all the others will be grouped into “non-robots”. Will non-robots include monkeys and parrots ? Yes, unless the manufacturers equip the robots with digital or optical or molecular equivalent of the human image in varying positions (standing, sitting, lying down). But this is a cumbersome solution and not a very effective one: there will always be the odd position which the robot will find hard to locate in its library. A human disk thrower or swimmer may easily be passed over as “non-human” by a robot. So will certain types of amputated invalids.
The first solution is even more seriously flawed. It is possible to design a test which the robot will apply to distinguish a robot from a human. But it will have to be non-intrusive and devoid of communication or with very limited communication. The alternative is a prolonged teletype session behind a curtain, after which the robot will issue its verdict: the respondent is a human or a robot. This is ridiculous. Moreover, the application of such a test will make the robot human in most of the important respects. A human knows other humans for what they are because he is human. A robot will have to be human to recognize another, it takes one to know one, the saying (rightly) goes.
Let us assume that by some miraculous way the problem will be overcome and robots will unfailingly identify humans. The next question pertains to the notion of “injury” (still in the First Law). Is it limited only to a physical injury (the disturbance of the physical continuity of human tissues or of the normal functioning of the human body)? Should it encompass the no less serious mental, verbal and social injuries (after all, they are all known to have physical side effects which are, at times, no less severe than direct physical “injuries”). Is an insult an injury? What about being grossly impolite, or psychologically abusing or tormenting someone? Or offending religious sensitivities, being politically incorrect ? The bulk of human (and, therefore, inhuman) actions actually offend a human being, has the potential to do so or seem to be doing so. Take surgery, driving a car, or investing all your money in the stock exchange – they might end in coma, accident, or a stock exchange crash respectively. Should a robot refuse to obey human instructions which embody a potential to injure said instruction-givers? Take a mountain climber – should a robot refuse to hand him his equipment lest he falls off the mountain in an unsuccessful bid to reach the peak? Should a robot abstain from obeying human commands pertaining to crossing busy roads or driving sports cars? Which level of risk should trigger the refusal program? In which stage of a collaboration should it be activated? Should a robot refuse to bring a stool to a person who intends to commit suicide by hanging himself (that’s an easy one), should he ignore an instruction to push someone jump off a cliff (definitely), climb the cliff (less assuredly so), get to the cliff (maybe so), get to his car in order to drive to the cliff in case he is an invalid – where does the responsibility and obeisance buck stop?
Whatever the answer, one thing is clear: such a robot must be equipped with more than a rudimentary sense of judgement, with the ability to appraise and analyse complex situations, to predict the future and to base his decisions on very fuzzy algorithms (no programmer can foresee all possible circumstances). To me, this sounds much more dangerous than any recursive automaton which will NOT include the famous Three Laws.
Moreover, what, exactly, constitutes “inaction”? How can we set apart inaction from failed action or, worse, from an action which failed by design, intentionally? If a human is in danger and the robot tried to save him and failed – how will we be able to determine to what extent it exerted itself and did everything that it could do?
How much of the responsibility for the inaction or partial action or failed action should be attributed to the manufacturer – and how much imputed to the robot itself? When a robot decides finally to ignore its own programming – how will we be informed of this momentous event? Outside appearances should hardly be expected to help us distinguish a rebellious robot from a lackadaisical one.
The situation gets much more complicated when we consider conflict states. Imagine that a robot has to hurt one human in order to prevent him from hurting another. The Laws are absolutely inadequate in this case. The robot should either establish an empirical hierarchy of injuries – or an empirical hierarchy of humans. Should we, as humans, rely on robots or on their manufacturers (however wise and intelligent) to make this selection for us? Should abide by their judgement – which injury is more serious than the other and warrants their intervention?
A summary of the Asimov Laws would give us the following “truth table”:
A robot must obey human orders with the following two exceptions:
That obeying them will cause injury to a human through an action or
That obeying them will let a human be injured
A robot must protect its own existence with three exceptions:
That such protection will be injurious to a human
That such protection entails inaction in the face of potential injury to a human
That such protection will bring about insubordination (not obeying human instructions).
Here is an exercise: create a truth table based on these conditions. There is no better way to demonstrate the problematic nature of Asimov’s idealized yet highly impractical world.
Другие работы по теме:
Robotics Essay Research Paper RoboticsRobot is a
Robotics Essay, Research Paper Robotics Robot is a computer-controlled machine that is programmed to move, manipulate objects, and accomplish work while interacting with its environment. Robots are able to perform repetitive tasks more quickly, cheaply, and accurately than humans. The term robot originates from the Czech word robota, meaning “compulsory labor.” It was first used in the 1921 play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots) by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Capek.
Buddhism Essay Research Paper BuddhismBuddhism is the
Buddhism Essay, Research Paper Buddhism Buddhism is the fourth largest religion of the world after Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. Although it originated in India, it has been adopted in countries like Tibet, China, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. Buddhism was founded in India by prince Siddhartha Gautam, who was born about 550 B.C in Northern India.
A True Prediction By Ray Bradbury Essay
, Research Paper “A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of variety of tasks” (Veit). In Mr. Bradbury’s novel, Fahrenheit 451, he made a prediction that in the future there would be robots that would help and assist humans.
Poetry Essay Research Paper Don t Give
Poetry Essay, Research Paper Don t Give In Dylan Thomas s poem “Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night”, is an urgent plea from Thomas to his dying father, and all men not to give in
Descriptive Essays Essay Research Paper The Separating
Descriptive Essays Essay, Research Paper The Separating White Line I glance up at the scoreboard; the clock reads 2:15 left in the fourth quarter. My team is down by 3 points; we have eighty-five yards to go, and have no time outs left. I yell out the cadence and the center snaps the oblong ball into my hands. Taking a short three-step drop I glance to my left.
Review Of The Red Lantern Essay Research
Paper There are some movies about lifestyles in China and then there is Raise the Red Lantern. The film parallels The Last Emperor in how a master controls his subjects within his domain. Out of all the Chinese movies that I have extensively viewed, this was the only one that actually, and effectively, captures the lush background of life during this time period.
Robotspast And Future Essay Research Paper ROBOTS
Robots:past And Future Essay, Research Paper ROBOTS: THEIR PAST AND FUTURE Past: It was approximately 3,000 years ago when the first signs of a robot appeared. The Iliad mentions a “mobile tripod” and in the myth Jason and the Argonauts a giant sentinel by the name of Talos is talked about. These weren’t real life robots, so when did the first robot appear.
Henry The Fourth Essay Research Paper HENRY
Henry The Fourth Essay, Research Paper HENRY THE FOURTH ESSAY In the play ?Henry the fourth? written by William Shakespeare is triumphant and denial. There is a prince named Hal that does not act like a prince that you think a prince would and fat man named Falstaff that is his friend. In this play we see that the prince changes when his father and his country need him from a hooligan of a prince to a prince that is tough and noble.
Lesson Plan Essay Research Paper Lesson Plan
Lesson Plan Essay, Research Paper Lesson Plan: Reading Grade Level:Fourth Grade Aim:To recall the sequence of events in a story, using a story pie. Behavioral Objective:Students recall the sequence of events in a story, using a story pie, with 80% accuracy.
A Fourth Reich Essay Research Paper A
A Fourth Reich? Essay, Research Paper A Fourth Reich? Is the idea of a recurrence of the Holocaust realistic, or is this just an empty threat? According to Roskin, the Holocaust, or A Fourth Reich, is possible, but most likely improbable. He says the Neo-Nazi groups being formed in Germany at this time are nothing to be concerned with because they will never re-establish the power that Hitler once possessed.
Impact Of Robtic Program Essay Research Paper
I saw the flier from Tech, and it was second week of school. I spotted out a robotic course at MIT. The program seemed tailored to my interest in math and science and to my competitive spirit. I couldn?t resist the opportunity. When I asked some of my friends if they were willing to sign up for a course with me, most of them discouraged me by telling me it was too advanced for them or they did not have time for such a course.
Basic Robotics Essay Research Paper What makes
Basic Robotics Essay, Research Paper What makes a robot? What is a robot? Well the term robot originally comes from Russia. A Czeck playwright, Karek Capek wrote a play in 1921 (translated in 1923) called “R.U.R.:Rossum’s Universal Robots.”. The word he adapted is the Czech word “robota” meaning “servitude” or “statute labour”.
Aibo And Robotics Essay Research Paper In
Aibo And Robotics Essay, Research Paper In our society today, advanced technology robots are hardly ever seen in the entertainment market. Robots that have the ability to perform tricks like AIBO are far too expensive to be brought out into stores. Lots of people don t even know about advanced technology entertainment robots.
Artificial Life Essay Research Paper Artificial life
Artificial Life Essay, Research Paper Artificial life (commonly called a-life) is the term applied collectively to attempts being made to develop mathematical models and computer simulations of the ways in which living organisms develop, grow, and evolve. Researchers in this burgeoning field hope to gain deeper insights into the nature of organic life as well as into the further possibilities of COMPUTER science and robotics (see ROBOT).
Is Lady Macbeth The 4Th Witch Essay
, Research Paper LADY MACBETH HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS A FOURTH WITCH. DO YOU CONSIDER THIS TO BE FAIR JUDGEMENT? I disagree with the statement that Lady Macbeth is a fourth witch.
Chinese Kites Essay Research Paper The Kite
Chinese Kites Essay, Research Paper The Kite: China, Fifth/Fourth Century BC. Two kitemakers, Kungshu P’an who made kites shaped like birds which could fly for up to three days, and Mo Ti (who is said to have spent three years building a special kite) were famous in Chinese traditional stories from as early as the fifth century BC.
Bc Speech Assignment Essay Research Paper Research
Bc Speech Assignment Essay, Research Paper Research Assignment #4 Your fourth speech is a research-based persuasive speech. Since your primary goal will be to convince your audience to take a specific action your research burden is higher. Your research is due via email on the date listed on your course schedule.
Impact Of FIRST Robotics Program Essay Research
Paper Carnegie Mellon It was just the second week of school, and I had mustered up all my courage to venture to the nether regions of our school known as the basement to attend the first meeting of the newly forming FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology) robotics team. When I walked into room one, the newly proclaimed FIRST headquarters, I looked around with apprehension, and I noticed that I did not recognize a single face in the room.
Malcolm X Essay Research Paper Malcolm XIn
Malcolm X Essay, Research Paper Malcolm X In Our Own Image Malcolm X, one of the most highly controversial speakers for equal rights for African Americans was born in Omaha, Nebraska on May 19, 1925. He was his father s seventh child and his mothers fourth. His father, Earl, was a Baptist preacher who was born in Georgia.
Abstract Of Bill Joy
’s The Dark Side Of Technology Essay, Research Paper In his speech, The Dark Side of Technology, Bill Joy addresses the pros and cons of three new technologies: genetic engineering, nanotechnology, and robotics. Though optimistic about the benefits of these quickly developing and promising technologies, referred to as GNR for short, Joy expresses his concerns about them.
Computer Scientist Essay Research Paper The title
Computer Scientist Essay, Research Paper The title computer scientist can be applied to a wide range of computer professionals who usually design computers and the software that runs them, develop information technologies, and develop and adapt principles for applying computers to new uses. Computer scientists perform many of the same duties as other computer professionals, but their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of new technology.
The Positronic Man Essay Research Paper THE
The Positronic Man Essay, Research Paper THE POSITRONIC MAN An extraordinary story about an extraordinary robot. In the twenty-first century the creation of the positronic brain leads to the development of robot labourers and revolutionises life on Earth. However, to the Martin family, their household robot NDR-113 is more than a tool, it is a trusted friend, a confidant, and a member of the family.
Miller Spring Essay Essay Research Paper Miller
Miller Spring Essay Essay, Research Paper Miller Springs Essay My science class and I went to Miller Springs to learn about sediments and nature a few days ago. The good and bad sides of the trip I will explain below.
The Earth Essay Research Paper THE EARTH
The Earth Essay, Research Paper THE EARTH The Earth’s Place In Space: Despite its own special conditions,the Earth is in some ways similar to the other inner planets the group of planets
Oedipus Essay Research Paper Jocasta doesn
Oedipus Essay, Research Paper Jocasta doesn’t understand her husband’s concern about the details of Laius’ death. When she asks Oedipus why he wants to see the servant, he responds, I can hold nothing back from you, now I’ve reached this pitch of dark foreboding. Oedipus goes on to give the history of his childhood, as referenced in the fourth summary.
Article Review Essay Research Paper REFLECTIONI read
Article Review Essay, Research Paper REFLECTION I read the article “High-Wire ACT,” by Meg Lundstrom featured in the May/June 2000 issue of Scholastic Instructor. In the article, a fourth grade teacher from a New York elementary school explains how her students have been successful in reading class. She says that phonics and literature need to be taught to all students.
My Participation In The Prince Of Wales
Robotics Team Essay, Research Paper My Participation in the Prince of Wales Robotics Team TOPIC 2. An experience or achievement that has had significant meaning in your
The Blue Hotel Essay Research Paper Leah
The Blue Hotel Essay, Research Paper Leah Miller Comparison Essay English J In the Blue Hotel, by Stephen Crane, four characters play four games of High Five. The game is played with partners. There are both similarities and differences in the
Uncle Sams Song Essay Research Paper Uncle
Uncle Sam`s Song Essay, Research Paper Uncle Sam’s song, "I Don’t Ever Wanna See You Again" is a song about a guy who gets his heart broken by his girlfriend. In this song Uncle Sam is
A Red Rose Essay Research Paper A
A Red Rose Essay, Research Paper A Red, Red Rose A Red, Red Rose is a poem written by Robert Burns, during 1796, the year of his death. The poem consists of four stanzas; each one four lines long.
5 Steps To Prepare For An Interview
Essay, Research Paper Intro to Business November 11, 2000 Five Steps in Preparing for an Interview 1. Tell me something about yourself a) Graduated from a single sexed college preparatory school, Garrison Forest in Baltimore, Maryland. Now finishing my fourth year at the College of Charleston, double- majoring in Business Administration and Pre-Law.