D
espite a minimum legal drinking age of 21, many young people in the United States consume alcohol. Some abuse alcohol by drinking frequently or by binge drinking--often defined as having five or more drinks* in a row. A minority of youth may meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition
(DSM-IV) criteria for alcohol dependence (1,2). The progression of drinking from use to abuse to dependence is associated with biological and psychosocial factors. This Alcohol Alert
examines some of these factors that put youth at risk for drinking and for alcohol-related problems and considers some of the consequences of their drinking.
Prevalence of Youth Drinking
Thirteen- to fifteen-year-olds are at high risk to begin drinking (3). According to results of an annual survey of students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades, 26 percent of 8th graders, 40 percent of 10th graders, and 51 percent of 12th graders reported drinking alcohol within the past month (4). Binge drinking at least once during the 2 weeks before the survey was reported by 16 percent of 8th graders, 25 percent of 10th graders, and 30 percent of 12th graders.
Males report higher rates of daily drinking and binge drinking than females, but these differences are diminishing (3). White students report the highest levels of drinking, blacks report the lowest, and Hispanics fall between the two (3).
A survey focusing on the alcohol-related problems experienced by 4,390 high school seniors and dropouts found that within the preceding year, approximately 80 percent reported either getting "drunk," binge drinking, or drinking and driving. More than half said that drinking had caused them to feel sick, miss school or work, get arrested, or have a car crash (5).
Some adolescents who drink later abuse alcohol and may develop alcoholism. Although these conditions are defined for adults in the DSM, research suggests that separate diagnostic criteria may be needed for youth (6).
Drinking and Adolescent Development
While drinking may be a singular problem behavior for some, research suggests that for others it may be an expression of general adolescent turmoil that includes other problem behaviors and that these behaviors are linked to unconventionality, impulsiveness, and sensation seeking (7-11).
Binge drinking, often beginning around age 13, tends to increase during adolescence, peak in young adulthood (ages 18-22), then gradually decrease. In a 1994 national survey, binge drinking was reported by 28 percent of high school seniors, 41 percent of 21- to 22-year-olds, but only 25 percent of 31- to 32-year-olds (3,12). Individuals who increase their binge drinking from age 18 to 24 and those who consistently binge drink at least once a week during this period may have problems attaining the goals typical of the transition from adolescence to young adulthood (e.g., marriage, educational attainment, employment, and financial independence) (13).
Risk Factors for Adolescent Alcohol Use, Abuse, and Dependence
Genetic Risk Factors.
Animal studies (14) and studies of twins and adoptees demonstrate that genetic factors influence an individual's vulnerability to alcoholism (15,16). Children of alcoholics are significantly more likely than children of nonalcoholics to initiate drinking during adolescence (17) and to develop alcoholism (18), but the relative influences of environment and genetics have not been determined and vary among people.
Biological Markers.
Brain waves elicited in response to specific stimuli (e.g., a light or sound) provide measures of brain activity that predict risk for alcoholism. P300, a wave that occurs about 300 milliseconds after a stimulus, is most frequently used in this research. A low P300 amplitude has been demonstrated in individuals with increased risk for alcoholism, especially sons of alcoholic fathers (19,20). P300 measures among 36 preadolescent boys were able to predict alcohol and other drug (AOD) use 4 years later, at an average age of 16 (21).
Childhood Behavior.
Children classified as "undercontrolled" (i.e., impulsive, restless, and distractible) at age 3 were twice as likely as those who were "inhibited" or "well-adjusted" to be diagnosed with alcohol dependence at age 21 (22). Aggressiveness in children as young as ages 5-10 has been found to predict AOD use in adolescence (23,24). Childhood antisocial behavior is associated with alcohol-related problems in adolescence (24-27) and alcohol abuse or dependence in adulthood (28,29).
Psychiatric Disorders.
Among 12- to 16-year-olds, regular alcohol use has been significantly associated with conduct disorder; in one study, adolescents who reported higher levels of drinking were more likely to have conduct disorder (30,31).
Six-year-old to seventeen-year-old boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were also found to have weak social relationships had significantly higher rates of alcohol abuse and dependence 4 years later, compared with ADHD boys without social deficiencies and boys without ADHD (32).
Whether anxiety and depression lead to or are consequences of alcohol abuse is unresolved. In a study of college freshmen, a DSM-III (33) diagnosis of alcohol abuse or dependence was twice as likely among those with anxiety disorder as those without this disorder (34). In another study, college students diagnosed with alcohol abuse were almost four times as likely as students without alcohol abuse to have a major depressive disorder (35). In most of these cases, depression preceded alcohol abuse. In a study of adolescents in residential treatment for AOD dependence, 25 percent met the DSM-III-R criteria for depression, three times the rate reported for controls. In 43 percent of these cases, the onset of AOD dependence preceded the depression; in 35 percent, the depression occurred first; and in 22 percent, the disorders occurred simultaneously (36).
Suicidal Behavior.
Alcohol use among adolescents has been associated with considering, planning, attempting, and completing suicide (37-39). In one study, 37 percent of eighth-grade females who drank heavily reported attempting suicide, compared with 11 percent who did not drink (40). Research does not indicate whether drinking causes suicidal behavior, only that the two behaviors are correlated.
Psychosocial Risk Factors
Parenting, Family Environment, and Peers.
Parents' drinking behavior and favorable attitudes about drinking have been positively associated with adolescents' initiating and continuing drinking (41,42). Early initiation of drinking has been identified as an important risk factor for later alcohol-related problems (43). Children who were warned about alcohol by their parents and children who reported being closer to their parents were less likely to start drinking (42,44,45).
Lack of parental support, monitoring, and communication have been significantly related to frequency of drinking (46), heavy drinking, and drunkenness among adolescents (47). Harsh, inconsistent discipline and hostility or rejection toward children have also been found to significantly predict adolescent drinking and alcohol-related problems (46).
Peer drinking and peer acceptance of drinking have been associated with adolescent drinking (48,49). While both peer influences and parental influences are important, their relative impact on adolescent drinking is unclear.
Expectancies.
Positive alcohol-related expectancies have been identified as risk factors for adolescent drinking. Positive expectancies about alcohol have been found to increase with age (50) and to predict the onset of drinking and problem drinking among adolescents (51-53).
Trauma.
Child abuse and other traumas have been proposed as risk factors for subsequent alcohol problems. Adolescents in treatment for alcohol abuse or dependence reported higher rates of physical abuse, sexual abuse, violent victimization, witnessing violence, and other traumas compared with controls (54). The adolescents in treatment were at least 6 times more likely than controls to have ever been abused physically and at least 18 times more likely to have ever been abused sexually. In most cases, the physical or sexual abuse preceded the alcohol use. Thirteen percent of the alcohol dependent adolescents had experienced posttraumatic stress disorder, compared with 10 percent of those who abused alcohol and 1 percent of controls.
Advertising.
Research on the effects of alcohol advertising on adolescent alcohol-related beliefs and behaviors has been limited (55). While earlier studies measured the effects of exposure to advertising (56), more recent research has assessed the effects of alcohol advertising awareness on intentions to drink. In a study of fifth- and sixth-grade students' awareness, measured by the ability to identify products in commercials with the product name blocked out, awareness had a small but statistically significant relationship to positive expectancies about alcohol and to intention to drink as adults (57). This suggests that alcohol advertising may influence adolescents to be more favorably predisposed to drinking (57).
Consequences of Adolescent Alcohol Use
Drinking and Driving.
Of the nearly 8,000 drivers ages 15-20 involved in fatal crashes in 1995, 20 percent had blood alcohol concentrations above zero (58). For more information about young drivers' increased crash risk and the factors that contribute to this risk, see Alcohol Alert No. 31: Drinking and Driving
(59).
Sexual Behavior.
Surveys of adolescents suggest that alcohol use is associated with risky sexual behavior and increased vulnerability to coercive sexual activity. Among adolescents surveyed in New Zealand, alcohol misuse was significantly associated with unprotected intercourse and sexual activity before age 16 (60). Forty-four percent of sexually active Massachusetts teenagers said they were more likely to have sexual intercourse if they had been drinking, and 17 percent said they were less likely to use condoms after drinking (61).
Risky Behavior and Victimization.
Survey results from a nationally representative sample of 8th and 10th graders indicated that alcohol use was significantly associated with both risky behavior and victimization and that this relationship was strongest among the 8th-grade males, compared with other students (62).
Puberty and Bone Growth.
High doses of alcohol have been found to delay puberty in female (63) and male rats (64), and large quantities of alcohol consumed by young rats can slow bone growth and result in weaker bones (65). However, the implications of these findings for young people are not clear.
Prevention of Adolescent Alcohol Use
Measures to prevent adolescent alcohol use include policy interventions and community and educational programs. Alcohol Alert No. 34: Preventing Alcohol Abuse and Related Problems
(66) covers these topics in detail. See the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism's (NIAAA's) World Wide Web site at niaaa.nih.gov.
Youth Drinking: Risk Factors and Consequences--A Commentary by
NIAAA Director Enoch Gordis, M.D.
A
lcohol, the most widely used and abused drug among youth, causes serious and potentially life-threatening problems for this population. Although alcohol is sometimes referred to as a "gateway drug" for youth because its use often precedes the use of other illicit substances, this terminology is counterproductive; youth drinking requires significant attention, not because of what it leads to but because of the extensive human and economic impact of alcohol use by this vulnerable population.
For some youth, alcohol use alone is the primary problem. For others, drinking may be only one of a constellation of high-risk behaviors. For these individuals, interventions designed to modify high-risk behavior likely would be more successful in preventing alcohol problems than those designed solely to prevent the initiation of drinking. Determining which influences are involved in specific youth drinking patterns will permit the design of more potent interventions. Finally, we need to develop a better understanding of the alcohol treatment needs of youth. Future questions for scientific attention include, what types of specialized diagnostic and assessment instruments are needed for youth; whether treatment in segregated, "youth only" programs is more effective than in general population programs; and, irrespective of the setting, what types of specific modalities are needed by youth to increase the long-term effectiveness of treatment.
Другие работы по теме:
Should The Drinking Age Be Lowered Essay
, Research Paper Should the Drinking Age be lowered? Many questions have been posed concerning the drinking age in all fifty states within the United States. Should it be lowered back to eighteen? What will the consequences be? Will there be more fatalities? What will insurance companies think? And, will it actually serve as a barrier to the underage consumers? All of these questions and many more are only the beginning of the controversy surrounding the legal drinking age.
Cause The Parasite Giardia Lamblia
Essay, Research Paper How spread: Drinking contaminated water Areas of risk: Common anywhere there is contamination of surface or domestic water. Commonly spread through day cares of underdeveloped countries. Outbreaks have occurred in cities where water is not properly treated.
Teen Alcholism Essay Research Paper Adolescents face
Teen Alcholism Essay, Research Paper Adolescents face many problems and situations that cause them to turn to alcohol abuse. Some adolescents may consume alcohol due to peer pressure, personal and family problem. The most significant cause could be children who are genetically influenced. In other words, children may have a family history of alcoholism.
Underage Drinking Age 21 Essay Research Paper
Underage Drinking Why did the United States of America pass a law to increase the drinking age from 18 to 21? The answer is because increasing the drinking age to 21 has effectively reduced the percentage of alcohol related deaths throughout the country. It seems that at 18, youths are not mature enough to handle the responsibilities and consequences that result from the privilege of being able to legally drink alcoholic beverages.
Underage Drinking Essay Research Paper Who is
Underage Drinking Essay, Research Paper Who is to judge whether or not someone underage is mature enough to handle the responsibility of consuming alcohol? The government has set twenty-one years of age as the legal drinking age. This is found to be a little odd by most teenagers. At the age of eighteen, young adults can sign their life away to the government and give their life for the country.
DRINKING Essay Research Paper Despite a minimum
DRINKING Essay, Research Paper Despite a minimum legal drinking age of 21, many young people in the United States consume alcohol. Some abuse alcohol by drinking frequently or by binge drinking–often defined as having five or more drinks* in a row. A minority of youth may meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria for alcohol dependence (1,2).
Drinking Age Essay Research Paper Since the
Drinking Age Essay, Research Paper Since the increase of the drinking age to 21 has taken effect in New York state, the argument for lowering that limit has been heated. The current age for the
Drunk Teen Drivers Essay Research Paper Teenagers
Drunk Teen Drivers Essay, Research Paper Teenagers Drinking Issues The drinking age is fine, if anything is should get raised. It is hard to ignore the fact that this law is broken everyday. It’s the 21st century all teens just want to fit in. Kids are drinking at a much younger age. Now, even 10 year olds and 11 year olds are trying to fit in with us older kids.
Women And Alcohol Essay Research Paper Although
Women And Alcohol Essay, Research Paper Although two thirds of American men and one half of American women drink alcohol, three fourths of drinkers experience no serious consequences from alcohol use. Among those who abuse alcohol, many reduce their drinking without formal treatment after personal reflection about negative consequences.
Underage Drinking Essay Research Paper Underage drinking
Underage Drinking Essay, Research Paper Underage drinking is a major problem for many of today?s youth. It can lead to teenage alcoholism and even death. It is not singled out to one race, age, or region. It can be found among the wealthiest doctors, lawyers, and businessmen?s children, and yet the poor factory worker?s child becomes that teenage alcoholic too.
Alcohol Essay Research Paper In today s
Alcohol Essay, Research Paper In today s world, teenagers are faced with many choices and have to make decisions that can and will often affect the rest of their lives. The consequences of alcohol use must become a reality among teenagers. Drinking alcohol can and will impair a wide range of skills necessary to perform daily tasks.
The Drinking Age Essay Research Paper Underage
The Drinking Age Essay, Research Paper Underage drinking has always been a major problem in society. The immaturity of teenagers contributes to their inability in understanding the dangerous effects that drinking has on their families and themselves. All they think about is how much fun they will have on Friday nights, bingeing beer.
Alcohol Research Paper Essay Research Paper Alcohol
Alcohol Research Paper Essay, Research Paper Alcohol Research Paper Alcohol plays too significant a role in society today and should be an after thought as opposed to the most essential addition to any social event. Alcohol creates numerous social, economic, and health problems that could very easily be stopped if it played a less influential role in every day events.
A Soldiers Home Essay Research Paper The
A Soldiers Home Essay, Research Paper The willingness to risk failure-as difficult as that can be-often leads us to remarkable discoveries about ourselves and our world. But on the other hand, not taking risks can save us from amounts of devastation and heartache. I think that was a major principle for Krebs in the short story, “Soldiers Home.” After going to hell and back, it’s almost inevitable that anyone under the circumstances would be completely overwhelmed by all that Krebs had experienced and risked.
Alcohol Problems More Likely For Young Drinkers
Essay, Research Paper Alcohol problems more likely for young drinkers Young people who begin drinking before age 15 are four times as likely to develop alcohol dependence, or alcoholism, than those who began at 21, according to a report from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, a division of the National Institutes of Health.
Lowering The Drinking Age Essay Research Paper
Laurent 1 English 102 December 1, 1997 Lowering the Drinking Age to 18 Since the increase of the drinking age to 21 has taken effect in New York state, the argument for lowering that limit has been heated. The current age for the consumption of alcohol in the United States is 21 (”Consequences”). Just as it is stated in the following quote, age limits for minors are inconsistent. ” Why is it that 18 year old U.S. citizens can legally obtain a driver’s license, register to vote, be forced into jury duty or a draft, can be tried as an adult and even put to death, but cannot buy and consume alcoholic beverages?”(”Drinking”).
Issues On Lowering The Drinking Age Essay
, Research Paper Issues on lowering the drinking age When one turns eighteen in the U.S, they can drive cars, fly planes, marry, vote, pay taxes, take out loans and risk their life as a member of the U.S. Armed forces, but it is illegal for them to drink. Why do young adults have the liberty to do everything else besides drink at the age of eighteen? Turning eighteen comes with adult responsibilities as well as privileges.
Alcoholism Essay Research Paper What influences why
Alcoholism Essay, Research Paper What influences why people start drinking alcohol? How and why does peer pressure effect alcohol consumption? How and why does media effect alcohol consumption? How and why does stress effect alcohol consumption? How and why does family effect alcohol consumption? What is the leading factor that leads to alcohol consumption? Do some people have more then one of these factors effecting why they start drinking? How do these factors effect how much a person drinks? Do these factors lead to people becoming alcoholics? All these questions lead to the answer, that stress, heredity, the media and peer pressure are big factors on people’s drinking habits.
Alcohol Problems And The Family Life Cycle
Essay, Research Paper I feel that alcohol causes problems not only to the user/drinker but also to their spouses, children, and other family members.Problem drinking can change the roles played by family members in relation to one another and the relationships that surround them. As a family member develops this problem, the drinker may fail to perform his or her functions as a breadwinner, to the support their children or to complete chores.
Alcohol 2 Essay Research Paper Alcohol is
Alcohol 2 Essay, Research Paper Alcohol is a drug, but unlike the other drug , marijuana, cocaine, heroine, and probably all the others for some reason this is socially accepted and is legal. Alcohol is bad for you and does have long term affects associated with it. Such as the long addiction to it, effects on the body, and the social interaction effects.
Causes Of Alcoholism Essay Research Paper Causes
Causes Of Alcoholism Essay, Research Paper Causes of Alcoholism Alcoholism is a disease that affects many people. It not only affects the alcoholic, but also their family, friends, co-workers, and strangers. The symptoms are many, as are the causes and the effects. Alcoholism is defined as an addiction to alcohol.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 2 Essay Research Paper
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome A pregnant woman’s lifestyle ultimately affects the development of her baby. Excessive exposure to alcohol during pregnancy can inflict serious, permanent physical and mental damage on her child. When a pregnant woman drinks alcohol she is making her child drink also. In knowing how Fetal Alcohol Syndrome can be prevented, what the symptoms are, and who and what make up the risk factors fetal alcohol syndrome can be better understood.
Teen Social Problems Essay Research Paper Teen
Teen Social Problems Essay, Research Paper Teen Social Problems There are many social problems that teenagers go threw. I think the two most recognized problems are Teenage Drinking and Driving, and Teen Suicide. These two social behaviors teenagers go threw are two of the leading causes of teenage death in the state of New Mexico.
The Legal Drinking Age Essay Research Paper
The Legal Drinking Age The legal drinking age is twenty-one years old. There is no justification for it to be that high. Many reasons support it being lowered. The legal drinking age in the in the United States should be changed to eighteen years old.
Drug And Alcohol Use By Student Athletes
Essay, Research Paper The topic that I have chosen is student athletes’ use of drugs and alcohol. I’m interested to see if the old theory that student athletes tend to stay away from these things still holds true today. From my own personal experience as a former high school and college football player, I doubt that this is true.
Binge Drinking Essay Research Paper Binge DrinkingWe
Binge Drinking Essay, Research Paper Binge Drinking We all know what it is like to wake up in the morning, your head is aching, and your body feels like it was hit by a big garbage truck. College students worldwide know this feeling. These are the results of binge drinking. Why do they do it?
Binge Drinking Essay Research Paper Binge drinking
Binge Drinking Essay, Research Paper -Binge drinking is defined as “the consumption of five or more drinks in a row on at least one occasion.” In national surveys about a third of high school seniors and 42 percent of college students reported at least one occasion of binge drinking within the previous 2 weeks.
Substance Abuse In The Workpla Essay Research
Paper Substance Abuse In the Workplace Substance abuse can lead to serious long-term consequences at every workplace. No single solution will work for every place of business; each workplace must identify which combination of policies, practices, benefits and support systems can best meet its needs.
Drinking Essay Research Paper Drinking Age The
Drinking Essay, Research Paper Drinking Age The drinking age is fine, if anything is should get raised. It is hard to ignore the fact that this law is broken everyday. It?s the 90?s all teens just want to fit in. Kids are drinking at a much younger age. Now, even 10 year olds and 11 year olds are trying to fit in with us older kids.
The Drinking Age Essay Research Paper Drinking
The Drinking Age Essay, Research Paper Drinking Age The drinking age is fine, if anything is should get raised. It is hard to ignore the fact that this law is broken everyday. It’s the 90’s all teens just want to fit in. Kids are drinking at a much younger age. Now, even 10 year olds and 11 year olds are trying to fit in with us older kids.
Alcoholism Pros And Cons Essay Research Paper
The following essay will introduce you to pros and cons of drinking. It will also give you a clear understanding in why you shouldn’t drink alcohol. Alcohol is a depressant; it impairs your ability to drive, slows down your reaction time and causes you to make some risky decisions that you wouldn’t normally take.
Youth Violence Essay Research Paper Youth violence
Youth Violence Essay, Research Paper Youth violence affects a lot of people. Hearing about it on the news is one way that youth violence has affected my life. In Washington, D.C. there is a lot of youth violence.
Do Drugs Cause Youth Violence Essay Research
Paper Do Drugs Cause Youth Violence? I believe that youth violence in America is somewhat due to the use of drugs, but not entirely. Although drugs are known to educe violent behavior, I do not believe they are the routes of violence among American teens. I think that kids can be violent with the absence of drugs.
Binge Drinking Essay Research Paper One of
Binge Drinking Essay, Research Paper One of the most serious problems in today’s youth is drinking. Amoung high school and college students a popular and very dangerous kind of drinking. Binge