At present nuclear detonations are the most devastating of the
weapons of mass destruction. Depending upon the environment in which the
nuclear device is detonated, blast effects are manifested as ground shock,
water shock, cratering, and large amounts of dust and radioactive fallout.
The energy of a nuclear explosion is transferred to the surrounding
medium in three distinct forms: blast; thermal radiation; and nuclear
radiation.
Because of the tremendous amounts of energy liberated per unit mass
in a nuclear detonation, temperatures of several tens of million degrees
centigrade develop in the immediate area of the detonation. This is in marked
contrast to the few thousand degrees of a conventional explosion. At these very
high temperatures the non-fissioned parts of the nuclear weapon are vaporized.
The atoms do-not release the energy as kinetic energy but release it in the
form of large amounts of electromagnetic radiation.
In an atmospheric detonation, this electromagnetic radiation,
consisting chiefly of soft x-ray, is absorbed within a few meters of the point
of detonation by the surrounding atmosphere, heating it to extremely high
temperatures and forming a brilliantly hot sphere of air and gaseous weapon
residues, the so-called fireball. Immediately upon formation, the fireball
begins to grow rapidly and rise like a hot air balloon.
Within a millisecond after detonation, the diameter of the fireball
from one megaton (Mt) air burst is 150m. This increases to a maximum of 2200 m within 10 seconds, at which time the fireball is also rising at the rate of 100 m/sec. The
initial rapid expansion of the fireball severely compresses the surrounding
atmosphere, producing a powerful blast wave.
As it expands toward its maximum diameter, the fireball cools, and
after about a minute its temperature has decreased to such an extent that it no
longer emits significant amounts of thermal radiation. The combination of the
upward movement and the cooling of the fireball gives rise to the formation of
the characteristic mushroom-shaped cloud. As the fireball cools, the vaporized
materials in it condense to form a cloud of solid particles. Following an air
burst, condensed droplets of water give it a typical white cloudlike
appearance.
In the case of a surface burst, this cloud will also contain large
quantities of dirt and other debris which are vaporized when the fireball
touches the earth's surface or are sucked up by the strong updrafts afterwards,
giving the cloud a dirty brown appearance. The dirt and debris become
contaminated with the radioisotopes generated by the explosion or activated by
neutron radiation and fall to earth as fallout.
The relative effects of blast, heat, and nuclear radiation will
largely be determined by the altitude at which the weapon is detonated. Nuclear
explosions are generally classified as air bursts, surface bursts, subsurface
bursts, underwater bursts and high altitude bursts. The most dangerous are
underwater and high altitude bursts, although other bursts are pretty dangerous
too.
Ядерный
взрыв
В
настоящее время ядерное оружие является самым разрушительным оружием массового
уничтожения. В зависимости от среды, в которой происходит детонация ядерного
заряда, последствия взрыва вызывают наземную, водную ударную волну, образование
кратера и выпадение большого количества пыли и радиоактивных осадков.
Энергия
ядерного взрыва передается в окружающую среду тремя основными способами: взрыв,
термальная радиация и ядерная радиация.
Из-за
огромнейшего количества энергии, высвобождаемой на единицу массы при детонации
ядерного заряда, температура непосредственно в месте взрыва может достигать
нескольких миллионов градусов по Цельсию. Что очень показательно в сравнении с
несколькими тысячами градусов при обычном взрыве. При таких высоких
температурах части ядерного заряда, которые еще не успели сгореть в цепной
реакции разложения, испаряются. Атомы не испускают энергию в виде кинетической
энергии, они испускают ее в виде электромагнитных волн.
При
надземном (атмосферном) взрыве эта электромагнитная радиация, состоящая в
основном из рентгеновских лучей низкой интенсивности, поглощается уже на
расстоянии нескольких метров от места взрыва окружающей атмосферой, при этом
атмосфера нагревается до сверхвысоких температур, образуя яркую раскаленную
сферу из воздуха и газообразных остатков деления ядерного заряда, так
называемый файербол (ядерный гриб). Сразу же по мере формирования, ядерный гриб
начинает очень быстро расти, наподобие шарика, наполняемого горячим воздухом.
В
течение миллисекунды после детонации заряда, диаметр ядерного гриба заряда в
одну мегатонну составляет 150 метров. Через десять секунд его диаметр
увеличивается максимум до 2200 метров, в течение которых увеличивается и сам
ядерный гриб со скоростью 100 метров в секунду. Начальное взрывное расширение
ядерного гриба очень сильно деформирует окружающую атмосферу, вызывая мощнейшую
взрывную волну.
По
мере своего расширения ядерный гриб остывает и примерно через минуту его
температура достигает такого уровня, что он уже не может излучать значительное
количество тепла (тепловой радиации). Сочетание поступательного расширения и
охлаждения ядерного гриба формирует облако грибовидной
формы.
По мере охлаждения сгустка плазмы, испарившиеся материалы конденсируются и
образуют облако твердых частиц. Следуя за взрывной волной, конденсат в виде
капелек воды образует облако белого цвета.
В
случае наземного взрыва, грибовидное облако содержит большое количество грязи и
других осколков, которые, как только сгусток плазмы касается земной поверхности,
тотчас же испаряются или затягиваются сильнейшим центробежным потоком, придавая
облаку грязно-коричневый цвет. Частички земли и другие осколки загрязняются
радиоактивными изотопами, появляющиеся после самого взрыва или нейтронного
облучения, и выпадают на землю в виде радиоактивных осадков.
Относительный
эффект взрыва, огромных температур и радиации определяется главным образом
высотой, на которой был произведен взрыв. Ядерные взрывы обычно подразделяются
на надземный (воздушный) ядерный взрыв, наземный, подземный, подводный и
высотный ядерные взрывы. Самыми опасными являются подводный и воздушный ядерные
взрывы, хотя и остальные представляют огромнейшую опасность.
Questions:
1. What kind of weapons is the most devastating nowadays?
2. What kind of nuclear blasts do you know?
3. What is the most dangerous kind of nuclear blast?
4. Why do temperatures of several tens of million degrees centigrade
develop in the immediate area of the detonation?
5. What determines the relative effects of nuclear blast?
6. What gives the nuclear explosion cloud a white appearance?
7. What gives the nuclear explosion cloud a dirty brown appearance?
Vocabulary:
nuclear detonation — детонация ядерного заряда
to
devastate — истощать, опустошать, разорять
destruction
— разрушение; уничтожение
to
depend — зависеть, находиться в зависимости (от кого-л./ чего-л. — on, upon);
положиться (на кого-то — on, upon), доверять (кому-то)
environment
— окружение, окружающая обстановка; окружающая среда
nuclear
device — прибор (устройство) с ядерным зарядом
blast
effects — последствия взрыва
cratering
— образование кратера
dust
— пыль (как субстанция); облако, клубы пыли
fallout
— выпадение
to
transfer — переносить, перемещать (from — из; to — в); передавать (имущество и
т. п.)
surrounding
medium — окружающая среда
distinct
— отдельный; особый, индивидуальный; отличный (от других — from)
blast
— взрыв; заряд, взрывчатка; ударная волна
tremendous
— огромный, гигантский, громадный; потрясающий
to
liberate — освобождать (от — from); выпускать на свободу, на волю; освобождать
территорию (от врагов)
conventional
— определенный договором или соглашением; обычный, обыкновенный, традиционный
explosion
— взрыв; взрывание
non-fissioned
— не разделившийся (ядерный материал)
to
vaporize — испарять(ся); распылять
to
release — освобождать (энергию)
kinetic
energy — кинетическая энергия
soft
x-ray — слабые рентгеновский лучи
to
absorb — всасывать, впитывать; абсорбировать; поглощать
gaseous
— газовый; газообразный
residue
— остаток
fireball
— ядерный гриб, ядерное облако (шар плазмы)
immediately
— прямо, непосредственно; немедленно, тотчас же, сразу, незамедлительно
to
rise (прош. вр. — rose; прич. прош. вр. — risen)— подниматься; увеличиваться в
объеме, возрастать
megaton
— мегатонна (= 1 миллиону тонн)
burst
— взрыв; разрыв
increase
— возрастание, рост; прибавление, прирост, размножение, разрастание, расширение,
увеличение; увеличенное количество, прирост, надбавка
initial
— начальный; исходный, отправной, первоначальный; начинающийся, зарождающийся
rapid
— быстрый, скорый, стремительный
expansion
— увеличение, расширение (в размере, объеме, количестве); распространение, экспансия;
рост, развитие
blast
wave — ударная волна
to
expand — растягивать(ся), расширять(ся); увеличивать(ся) в объеме, в размерах
to
decrease — уменьшать(ся), убывать, сокращать(ся)
extent
— пространство, протяжение, расстояние, протяженность; объем; размер, величина
to
emit — излучать, испускать, выделять (свет, тепло, запах и т. п.); выбрасывать,
извергать (пепел, дым, лаву)
significant
— значительный, важный, существенный; знаменательный; многозначительный;
выразительный
upward
— направленный вверх, поднимающийся, восходящий
movement
— движение (вообще или какой-л. вид); передвижение, перемещение
droplet
— капелька
to
contain — содержать в себе, включать, иметь в своем составе; вмещать
to
suck up — всасывать; поглощать
updraft
— восходящий поток
afterwards
— впоследствии, позднее, позже, после, потом
radioisotope
— радиоизотоп, радиоактивный изотоп
neutron
radiation — нейтронная радиация
fallout
— выпадение радиоактивных осадков
altitude
— высота; высота над уровнем моря
Список литературы
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