Culture
Определения
слова "культура"
That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society (Tylor, 1871)
The sum total of knowledge, attitudes, and habitual behavior
patterns shared and transmitted by members of a particular society (Linton, 1940)
[All the] historically created designs for living, explicit and
implicit, rational, irrational, and nonrational, which exist at any given time
as potential guides for the behavior of man (Kluckhohn & Kelly, 1945)
The mass of learned and transmitted motor reactions, habits, techniques,
ideas, and values—and the behavior they induce (Kroeber, 1948)
The man-made part of the environment (Herskovits, 1955)
Patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human
groups, including their embodiments in artifacts (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952)
Culture is all those means whose forms are not under genetic control
which serve to adjust individual and groups within their ecological communities
(Binford, 1968, p. 323)
Culture is a set of shared ideals, values, and standards of
behavior; it is the common denominator that makes the actions of individuals
intelligible to the group. Because they share a common culture, people can
predict each other’s actions in a given circumstance and react accordingly. A
set of rules or standards shared by members of a society that when acted upon
by the members, produce behavior that falls within a range the members consider
proper and acceptable. (Haviland, 1975)
We may define culture as the totality of the learned and shared
patterns of belief and behavior of a human group. (Aceves & King, 1978)
Learned behavior copied from another (Steadman, 1982)
We will restrict the term culture to an ideational system. Cultures
in this sense comprise systems of shared ideas, systems of concepts and rules
and meanings that underlie and are expressed in the ways that humans live.
Culture, so defined, refers to what humans learn, not what they do and make. As
Goodenough (1961, p. 522) expressed it, this knowledge provides "standards
for deciding what is, …for deciding what can be, …for deciding how one feels
about it, …for deciding what to do about it, …and for deciding how to go about
doing it." (Kessing & Strathern 1998, p. 16)
There is agreement that culture is learned from others while growing
up in a particular society or group; is widely shared by the members of that
society or group; and so profoundly affects the thoughts, actions, and feelings
of people in that group that anthropologists commonly say that
"individuals are a product of their culture. (Bailey & Peoples, 1999)
"CULTURE: (1) the set of capacities which distinguishes Homo
sapiens as a species and which is fundamental to its mode of adaptation. (2)
The learned, cumulative product of all social life. (3) The distinctive
patterns of thought, action, and values that characterize the members of a
society or social group (4) A series of mutually incompatible concepts, developing
after the Second World War:
(a) in social anthropology, the arrangements of belief and custom
through which social relations are expressed;
(b) in materialist studies, the patterned knowledge, techniques, and
behavior through which humans adapt to the natural world;
(c) in ethnoscience, a set of standards for behavior considered
authoritative within a society;
(d) in symbolic studies, a system of meanings through which social
life is interpreted.
Robert Winthrop (1991) Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural
Anthropology. NY: Greenwood Press. p. 50
***
Culture is "an ideal of human perfection...increased sweetness,
increased light, increased life, increased sympathy."
Matthew Arnold (1869: 64) Culture and Anarchy
***
"Culture may be defined as the totality of the mental and
physical reactions and activities that characterize the behavior of the
individuals composing a social group collectively and individually in relation
to their natural environment, to other groups, to members of the group itself
and of each individual to himself. It also includes the products of these
activities and their role in the life of the groups. The mere enumeration of
these various aspects of life, however, does not constitute culture. It is
more, for its elements are not independent, they have a structure."
Franz Boas (1963--orig. 1938) The Mind of Primitive Man. New York: Macmillan. p. 149.
***
"Culture is a class of things and events, dependent upon
symboling, considered in an extrasomatic context."
Leslie White (1959) "The Concept of Culture" American
Anthropologist 61(2)
***
"Culture consists of the more or less organized system of
learned, prescribed understandings complexly shared by a group of people."
Marc J. Swartz:
***
"Culture is all those means whose forms are not under direct
genetic control..which serve to adjust individuals and groups within their
ecological communities"
Lewis Binford
***
"The culture concept comes down to behavior patterns associated
with particular groups of peoples, that is to "customs" or to a
people's way of life."
Marvin Harris
***
"A society's culture consists of whatever it is one has to know
or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members. Culture
is not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behavior, or
emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the form of
things that people have in mind, their models for perceiving, relating , and
otherwise interpreting them...
Culture....consists of standards for deciding what is...for deciding
what can be, ...for deciding what one feels about it, ...for deciding what to
do about it, and...for deciding how to go about doing it. "
Ward
Goodenough
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