Iran Contra (A+) Essay, Research Paper
The Iran-Contra affair is not one scandalous incident, but rather two covert operations started under Reagan?s administration. In the beginning, these two operations were independent of each other, but eventually became linked though funds received from the sale of arms to Iran for hostages and then given to the Contras fighting to overthrow a Marxist government in Nicaragua.
The scandal began with Nicaraguan politics. After the Marxist Sandinista regime took over Nicaragua in 1979, the government was faced with a growing communist threat to US interest in Central America. When President Reagan took office in 1981, he was vehemently determined to halt the spread of communism, especially in Central America (Arnson 1989, 8). Seeking to bolster US prestige and military power, Reagan took a tough stand against communism in the Western Hemisphere. In Nicaragua, he gave the Central Intelligence Agency the approval to help organize and aid a group of ?Contrarevolucionarios? or ?Contras? who were in opposition to the Sandinista regime (Arnson 1989, 6).
Congress, unwilling to fight in another country?s war after the devastating loss in Vietnam, began restricting the use of government funds for rebel guerrillas in Central America. The CIA, concerned that soon Congress would cut off the funding for their program, began to stockpile arms for the contras (Walsh 1997, 18). Their fears were realized when Congress enacted the second Boland Amendment which stated:
No funds available tot he Central Intelligence Agency, the Department of Defense, or any other agency or entity of the United States involved in intelligence activities may be obligated or expended for the purpose of which would have the effect of supporting, directly or indirectly, military or paramilitary operations in Nicaragua by any nation, group, organization, movement, or individual (Arnson 1989, 167-8).
The Reagan administration interpreted the Boland Amendment as not covering the activities of the National Security Council (NSC). The NSC was established in 1947 with the explicit purpose of advising the President on all matters relating to national security. Beginning with the Eisenhower administration, the NSC was given a small staff that ultimately grew and turned into a vital arm of the presidency. As years went by, the NSC staff began controlling the ?policy-making output of both State and Defense Department, as well as the activities of the CIA (Draper 1991, 11).? When the CIA was banned from acting in Nicaragua by the second Boland amendment, President Reagan surreptitiously bypassed Congress and employed his NSC staff instead. National Security Council staffer Oliver North became the central coordinator supplying aid to the Contras.
After Reagan?s reelection in 1984, he began an additional covert operation. This time, it was the effort to release seven American hostages being held in Lebanon by a radical Islamic group called the Hezbollah. The operation included trading arms for hostages, which clearly violated the Arms Export Control Act, the National Security Act, and stated US policy not to deal with terrorists (Walsh 1997, 3). Iran, in the middle of a war with Iraq, was desperate for weapons. Many Iranians approached US officials offering t help free the hostages in Lebanon in exchange for arms. National Security Adviser Robert McFarlane was approached by Israeli intermediaries and was persuaded to ask the President about negations with the Iranians. Reagan approved a shipment of 96 wire-guided anti-tank missiles to be delivered to Iran on August 30, 1985, and another 408 to be delivered on September 14. After the secret exchange of these weapons, the Iranians released only one hostage.
In an effort to release more hostages, a second large shipment of weapons was to take place in November. The Israeli aircraft intended to ship the weapons could not fly directly to Iran. The plan was to fly to a European air base, transfer the cargo to another plane and then fly to Iran, but they were not able to obtain the necessary clearance to do so. From that point on, Oliver North began arranging for CIA planes to carry the shipment of weapons to Iran (Walsh 1997, 5). The President then decided to drop the Israelis as middlemen and negotiated the direct sale of arms from the United Stated to Iran. HE also decided to keep these actions secret from Congress. North subsequently began selling the Iranians missiles at marked up prices. He negotiated low purchase price with the Department of Defense and the surplus funds were then used to pay for aid to the Contras (Walsh 1997, 20).
Two unrelated incidents that revealed Iranian and Contra covert operations occurred within one month of each other. On October 5, 1986, Sandinista troops shot down an airplane carrying ten thousand pounds of ammunition and weapons being sent to the Contras who were fighting in northern Nicaragua. The only surviving crewmember, Eugene Hassenfus, was captured and confessed his role in an American covert operation to aid the Contras. He was also found crying the business card of a US official who was integral to the arms deal (Arnson 1989, 199).
The second incident occurred on November 3, 1986. A Lebanese magazine, Al Shiraa, published a story that exposed the United States sale of arms to Iran in exchange for hostages. This story was picked up by the news media not only in the United States but also throughout the world, as was confirmed by the speaker of the Iranian parliament (Walsh 1997, 8).
The connection to these two events was confirmed domestically when Edwin Meese, Counselor to the President and Attorney General, announced that money from the sale of weapons to the Iranians had been given to the Contras in their struggled against the Sandinistas. It was though this revelation that the world was informed of the greatest scandal since Watergate. The President of the United States had authorized and knowingly deceived Congress about two major international operations, both of which were illegal. The Iran-Contra Affair remains a disgrace in the history of American policy and tarnished the Reagan presidency.
Bibliography
Arnson, Cynthia J. 1989. Crossroads: Congress, The Reagan Administration, and Central
America. New York: Random House.
Draper, Theodore. 1991. A Very Thin Line: The Iran-Contra Affairs. New York: Farrar, Straus,
& Giroux.
Walsh, Lawrence E. 1997. Firewall: The Iran Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company.
Другие работы по теме:
Иран-контрас
План Введение 1 Расследование в США 2 Рассмотрение дела Международным Судом ООН 3 Причастные к скандалу Введение Иран-контрас (англ. Iran-Contra; также известен как «Ирангейт», по аналогии с «Уотергейтом») — крупный политический скандал в США во второй половине 1980-х годов. Разгорелся в конце 1986 года, когда стало известно о том, что отдельные члены администрации США организовали тайные поставки вооружения в Иран, нарушая тем самым оружейное эмбарго против этой страны.
Jai Alai Essay Research Paper Jai alai
Jai Alai Essay, Research Paper Jai alai es un juego de pelota de origen vasco, quienes lo han llamado “pelota vasca”. Jai alai significa “festival alegre” en la lengua vasca. El deporte fue importada en Cuba en el ano mil novecienta. Jai alai se juega por la mayor parte Espana, Cuba, Mexico, Italia, Francia, los Filipinos, y los Estados Unidos.
Romeo An Juliet Essay Research Paper hi
Romeo An Juliet Essay, Research Paper hi i need an essay about a character in romeo and juliet that demonsrtated maturity. in a well developed multi pagraph essay and say why you think the character’s maturity was greater than the other characters in the play.
Me And My Daughter Essay Research Paper
1a) Some right that Betty is not intitled to are, that she is not allowed to express herself and express her opinions which means she can’t express herself by what she wears or what she does with out getting beaten by Moody
Nature Vs Nurture Essay Research Paper Americans
Nature Vs. Nurture Essay, Research Paper Americans were ever held hostage in Iran. They can’t imagine what hard contact lenses are. They don’t know who Mork was or where he was from. They never heard the terms “Where’s the beef?”, “I’d walk a mile for Camel”, or “de plane, de plane!”. They do not care who shot J.R. and have no idea who J.R. is.
Islam Essay Research Paper This incident reflects
Islam Essay, Research Paper This incident reflects typical crimes and injustices against women in the Third World countries. Crimes against women include abuse, slavery, false imprisonment, murder and rape. In these countries, women are considered to be inferior to men and are not granted equal rights or protection under the laws.
Oh Really Essay Research Paper Oh Reallyyou
Oh Really? Essay, Research Paper Oh Really, you think i am a lark, the dogs they run and bark, but when i say to them, shut up shut up shut up, you say to be nice to them,
Hunters
& Gatherers Essay, Research Paper Anthropology 1010: Assignment 1 The Asmat, Headhunters, people are located in New Guinea’s West Iran. These people actually cut off people heads and eat their brains and wear their jaws as a necklace. People’s brains are not their main source of food. The major food of these people is the starch of the sago palm that they roast.
Saddam Hussein Essay Research Paper Saddam HusseinSaddam
Saddam Hussein Essay, Research Paper Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein (1937- ), authoritarian president of Iraq since 1979) who has led his country into two devastating wars. Born to a poor farming family in Tikr?t, a town north of Baghd?d, Hussein was raised by his widowed mother and other relatives. He moved to Baghd?d in 1955 and became involved in politics, joining the opposition Baath Party, an Arab nationalist movement.
Saint Thomas Aquinas Writings Essay Research Paper
In “Summa Contra Gentiles”, by Saint Thomas Aquinas, one of the major proofs of the existence of God is the second proof. The second proof is based on the “everything has a cause” theory. He states that there are ordered lines of efficient causes, and nothing can be it’s own cause. Yet it is impossible for the line of efficient causes to extend into infinity.
Kurds Essay Research Paper Why dont the
Kurds Essay, Research Paper Why don?t the Kurds have a state? The Kurds are a scattered, tribal people who live in the plateaus and mountains where Syria, Iraq, Iran, and Turkey overlap. They make up a significant minority of the population of these Middle Eastern states. They are mainly Sunni Muslim, but have a language and culture of their own, quite different from the Arabs, Persians, and Turks.
Security 2 Essay Research Paper security is
Security 2 Essay, Research Paper security is the concept related to peace and order.Security is a freedom from threats to core values.It is the ability of states to maintain their independent identity and functional integrity.States would seek to achieve their own security at the expense of their neighbours.
Kiss The Dust Essay Research Paper Kiss
Kiss The Dust Essay, Research Paper Kiss the Dust Kiss the dust by Elizabeth Laird is a story about a young Kurdistan girl names Tara. Her life is challenged by having to escape from Baghdad, because her father is a member of the Pesh Murgas. She has to move from Baghdad to the mountains of Iran. Tara has to adapt to her new surroundings and struggles to survive through each day.
Ronald Reagon Essay Research Paper Danielle ScottAPUSH
Ronald Reagon Essay, Research Paper Danielle Scott APUSH per.1 06/05/00 Ronald Reagon How does the Book compare with the movie? Ronald Reagon was the United States 40th president. Before getting into politics, he was a b- grade actor. Soon after, he began to display a flair for politics as president of the screen actor s gild when he helped purge communists and other suspected reds from the film industry.
Politics 3 Essay Research Paper A Short
Politics 3 Essay, Research Paper A. Short essays. 2. I believe that Nigeria is most definitely an Unfinished State, I feel this way due to the fact that the people can work their whole lives often funding other cities that they do not live in but their government cannot seem to pull their people together so that they may trust one another, even for the simple task of electing a mutually respected president.
Women In Iran Essay Research Paper Organized
Women In Iran Essay, Research Paper Organized and Institutionalized Sexual Exploitation and Violence Policy and Law The “Press Law and Women Bill” was ratified into law on the 13th of August 1998 in Iran; it is the Fifth Amendment of Article 6 of the press law. The bill states that, “commercial use of women’s image and texts declaring women’s issues, humiliation, insult, propagation of formality, use of ornaments, and defending women’s beyond the bounds of legal and religious law is forbidden.” Violators of the law will be punished with lashes and imprisonment, as well as losing their publication license.
Stereotyping The Followers Of Islam Essay Research
Paper Stereotyping the Followers of Islam The movie, Not Without My Daughter, begins when the family of Mahmoody, Mahtob, and Betty were visiting with the grandparents of Mahtob. Mahmoody, who is Muslim, decides to take his young family to Iran. He swears on the sacred Coran that nothing bad will happen to them.
Marco Polo 2 Essay Research Paper Marco
Marco Polo 2 Essay, Research Paper Marco Polo Marco Polo was born in 1254. He was a Italian traveler and explorer. He was the first European to cross the entire continent of Asia and leave a record of what he saw and heard.
Jimmy Carter Essay Research Paper Jimmy CarterEconomy
Jimmy Carter Essay, Research Paper Jimmy Carter Economy can always make or break a president. President Jimmy Carter?s was a Democrat whose administration, that lasted from 1977-1981, was burdened with a recessive economy from the beginning. Inflation was rising rapidly due to the worst oil embargo United States history has ever witnessed.
Iran Essay Research Paper Iran 2
Iran Essay, Research Paper Iran – HIstory geography climate culture economy government Iran is a country located in the Middle East. Below it is the Gulf of Oman and to the west is the Persian Gulf. On the east is
Analyzing Persian Gulf Crisis Between Iraq And
Kuwait Essay, Research Paper In analyzing the Persian Gulf Crisis originally between Iraq and Kuwait, one must first understand the factors that contributed to the conflict. In 1980, Iraq carried out a major air and land attack on Iran. For eight years, the Iran-Iraq War grew more intense, until the U.S. “accidentally” downed an Iranian plane, killing 290 passengers.
Iran Essay Research Paper 1Politics Power and
Iran Essay, Research Paper Politics, Power, and U.S. Policy in Iran, 1950-1953 1 by Francis J. Gavin On 19 August 1953, elements of the Iranian army, acting on orders from the Shah and
Defense Spending Essay Research Paper Defense SpendingDefense
Defense Spending Essay, Research Paper Defense Spending Defense spending is how much money the government uses to for our national defense. This year President Clinton?s budget includes 267 billion dollars for defense or around 15% of the budget. The budget only includes 18 billion dollars for foreign assistance, which accounts for about 1% of the budget.
Good Neighbor Policy Essay Research Paper The
Good Neighbor Policy Essay, Research Paper The Good Neighbor Policy The Good Neighbor policy was the idea that the United States should branch away from isolationism and establish relations with Latin American Countries in order to increase trade. The U.S. was especially concerned with trade in Latin America because of the problems created by the war between Japan and China, which began in 1937, the outbreak of World War II in 1939, and finally with the military and diplomatic efforts necessitated by the entrance of the United States into the war in 1941.
IranContra A Scandal Essay Research Paper The
Iran-Contra: A Scandal Essay, Research Paper The Iran-Contra scandal was one of the worst examples of how politics work in the “civilized world.” As the scheme unfolded, people were taken hostage in Lebannon, people were killed, lies were told, laws were broken, weapons were traded, and America was disgraced.
The Iran Contra Affair Essay Research Paper
The Iran Contra Affair was a secret arrangement to provide funds to Nicaraguan contra rebels from profits accumulated by selling arms to Iran in the 1980’s. There is much controversy surrounding this scandal, including the president’s knowledge of these events. Throughout the trials, President Regan claimed that he knew nothing about the diversion of funds, or the illegal arms sales to Iran.
IranContra Essay Research Paper THE IRAN
Iran-Contra Essay, Research Paper THE IRAN CONTRA AFFAIR The Iran-Contra Affair concerns a secret arrangement to provide $30 million to the Nicaraguan right-wing contra guerrillas from profits gained by selling arms to Iran. Aid to the contras had been strictly prohibited by Congress, as had the sale of arms to a government deemed hostile to the US.