П.В. Терешкович
Наука о человеке; среди других подразделений она включает: Физиологию или ту отрасль естественной науки, которая раскрывает в людях, животных и растениях тайны органов и их функций; а также, и особенно, Психологию
или великую и в наше время слишком пренебрегаемую науку о душе, как о сущности, отличной от духа, и об ее связи с духом и телом.
В современной науке психология занимается лишь – или в основном – состояниями нервной системы и почти полностью игнорирует психическую сущность и природу. Врачи психологией называют науку о сумасшествии, и этим словом именуют кафедру лунатизма в медицинских колледжах.
Реже – общая А. (general Anthropology) – преимущественно в англоязычных странах – совокупность научных дисциплин, изучающих человечество на всех исторических этапах его развития.
А. фокусирует свое внимание, с одной стороны, на биологической и культурной дифференциации различных групп людей, с другой стороны, на тех интегративных чертах, которые позволяют представить человечество как единое целое. Антропологические дисциплины объединены рядом общих научных принципов и методологических подходов, среди которых особо выделяется «принцип холизма, ориентирующий на многоаспектный анализ изучаемых явлений.
Как правило, к А. относят физическую А., археологию, антропологическую лингвистику и культурную А. Физическая (или биологическая) А. исследует биологические аспекты человеческого существования. В ее рамках выделяется палеонтология человека (палеоантропология), изучающая проблемы происхождения и эволюции человека как биологического вида. Ответвлением этого направления считается приматология, ориентированная на исследование социальных форм поведения человекообразных обезьян. Другое направление, с которым чаще всего ассоциируется название физическая А., исследует расовую дифференциацию человечества.
Археология занимается анализом ископаемых материальных культурных объектов и реконструкцией на этой основе культуры и образа жизни древних народов. С достаточной степенью условности выделяют классическую археологию, изучающую древние цивилизации Средиземноморья, доисторическую археологию, ориентированную на исследование культур бесписьменных народов, и историческую археологию, верхний временной предел исследований которой доходит до сер. 19 в. Существует также представление об антропологической археологии как о субдисциплине, решающей такие сложные комплексные проблемы, как этногенез народов, доместификация животных или возникновение земледелия в различных регионах планеты.
Антропологическая лингвистика исследует различные формы человеческой коммуникации, включая язык. В ее состав входит: историческая лингвистика, изучающая происхождение языка как универсального феномена человеческой культуры, а также генезис и историческое развитие отдельных языков; дискриптивная лингвистика – наука о фонетической и грамматической структуре языков; этнолингвистика, акцентирующая свое внимание на взаимодействии языка и конкретной культуры; социолингвистика, исследующая социальную обусловленность речевого поведения различных групп людей.
Культурная А. (реже – социальная А., социально-культурная А.) ориентирована на изучение культур отдельных народов и человечества в целом. При этом выделяется этнография – описание культур конкретных современных народов, и этнология – сравнительный анализ и обобщение данных, собранных во время этнографических экспедиций. Сама же культурная А. выступает в виде высшей формы генерализации представлений об институтах культуры человечества, представленной в универсальной интерэтнической форме. В структуре антропологических дисциплин культурная А. занимает центральное место, так как, главным образом, именно в ее рамках и ее представителями вырабатывались базовые теоретические положения, характерные для А. в целом.
В отдельных случаях в качестве самостоятельной антропологической дисциплины выделяют прикладную А., ориентированную на решение конкретных проблем (например, здравоохранения, образования, национальных меньшинств и т.д.). Институциональное единство антропологических дисциплин в ряде случаев (например, в Сша) достигается на уровне университетского образования в рамках общих факультетов, а также на уровне профессиональных ассоциаций. В российской традиции термин А. изначально закрепился за физической А., а за культурной А. – этнография (последние годы – этнология).
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