Способы письма в алфавите языка хинди

Способы письма в алфавите языка хинди

Глава I: Алфавит
Глава II: Произношение: Гласные.
Глава III: Произношение: Согласные ....
Глава IV: Способы письма: Гласные ...
Глава V: Способы письма: Согласные ....
Глава VI: Анусвара и назализация ....
Глава VII: Акцент ....
Глава VIII: Сандхи и Благозвучие ....

ИМЕНА, МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ И ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫЕ

Глава IX : Введение ....
Глава X: Имена ....
Глава XI: Числительные ....
Глава XII: Падежи ....
Глава XIV: Падежи – Прямая форма ....
Глава XV: Падежи – Косвенная форма ....
Глава XVI: Местоимения ....
Глава XVII: Местоимения: Косвенная форма ....
Глава XVIII: Местоимения: Разное ....
Глава XIX: Прилагательные ....
Глава XX: Числительные ....

ГЛАГОЛЫ

Глава XXI : Глаголы: Введение ....
Глава XXII; Повелительное наклонение....
Глава XXIII: Настоящее время изъявительного наклонения ....
Глава XXIV: Прошедшее время изъявительного наклонения....
Глава XXV: Будущее время изъявительного наклонения ...
Глава XXVI: Настоящее совершенного вида ....
Глава XXVII: Настоящее обыкновенного вида ....
Глава XXVIII: Прошедшее совершенного вида ....
Глава XXIX: Сослагательное наклонение ....
Глава XXX: Инфинитив ....
Глава XXXI: Причастия и абсолютив ....
Глава XXXII: Побуждающие глаголы....
Глава XXXIII: Сложные глаголы ....
Глава XXXIV: Страдательный залог и безличное наклонение ....

НАРЕЧИЯ, ПОСЛЕЛОГИ, СОЮЗЫ
И МЕЖДОМЕТИЯ

Глава XXXV : Наречия ....
ГлаваXXXVI: Послелоги ....
Глава XXXVII: Союзы....
Глава XXXVIII: Междометия....

СИНТАКСИС

ГлаваXXXIX : Разное....
Глава XXXX: Согласование: Залог и Конструкции ....
Глава XXXXI: Порядок слов ....

ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ

Приложение I : Префиксы и суффиксы ....
Приложение II Род ....
Приложение III: Сложные слова....
Приложение IV: Разное ....
Приложение V: Стандартизированный шрифт деванагари ..
Приложение VI: Схема ЗчгрРрр±рЬу грВрбЩррврр: врч®рРр тгртПр .... ..
Приложение VII: Схема СртЬгртПрбГр ЗчгрРрр±рЬу
Приложение VIII: Стандартизация произношения хинди

Язык хинди, как и многие другие северно-индийские языки вроде маратхи и непали, использует санскритское письмо Нагари (или Деванагари), которое испокон веков применяется в санкритской литературе по всей Индии.

Недавно, это письмо было стандартизировано Центральным управлением языка хинди, Министерством просвещения и обслуживания молодежи в целях выработки единообразия в письменной форме и улучшения формы некоторых из его букв. Этот «стандартизированный деванагари» приведен в Приложении V.

Алфавит состоит из следующих 11 гласных и 35 согласных:

Гласные:

Ў а, Ўр а-а, э и, эб и-и, Ј у-у, ¤ у-у, Ґ ры,
¦ э, ¦ч ай, Ўрч о, Ўрш ау.

Примечание: ‘ ь’ (анусвара) и ‘:’ ' (висарга) часто включаются в список гласных (и обычно пишутся как Ўь и Ў:). Но, в языке хинди они – согласные.

Знак ‘ ь’ (анусвара), помещенный над гласной, может представлять любую из согласных ґ, Ѕр, Вр, Рр и Щр (которые произносятся после гласного). Знак ‘:’' (висарга) , помещенный после гласной, представляет и.

Гласная Ґ в языке хинди появляется только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита.

Согласные

Ёо ка, ®р кха, ±р га, ір гха, ґ нга,
µр чя, ¶ чха, ёр джа, »р джха, Ѕр ня,
ѕ Та, ї Тха, А Да, Б Дха, Вр На,
Гр та, Жр тха, З да, Пр дха, Рр на,
Ср па, То пха, Чр ба, Шр бха, Щр ма,
Ър йа, Ь ра, вр ля, гр ва,
др шя, жр ша, зр са, и ха, Ая Рая, Бя Рха.

Примечание: (1) Ў ‘a’ присущ каждому алфавитному знаку согласной.

Иными словами, алфавитные буквы согласных языка хинди означают не только согласные звуки. Они являются обозначениями слогов, состоящих из соответствующего согласного + Ў. Таким образом, Ёо – это не просто ‘к’, а k+a; вр – не просто ‘ль’, а l+a. Поэтому Ў именуется «присущим согласной букве».

(2) жр появляется в хинди только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита.
(3) ґ, Ѕр, Вр, Ая и Бя никогда не встречаются в начале слова; а ґ и Ѕр никогда не употребляются самостоятельно, а только в сочетании с последующейц согласной.

Знак (чандра-бинду), помещаемый над гласной (Ўщь, Ўры и т.д.) указывает назализацию гласной, которая именуется носовой (анунасика).

Так как анусваре неизменно предшествует гласная, а ее знак близко напоминает знак назализации (анунасику), и оба знака помещаются над гласным, да к тому же звуки, представленные ими, схожи, анусвара на письме часто путается с чандрабинду (µрРНтЧрРЗф) и заменяется ею. Таким образом, иш. (hai) «они есть» (почти всегда) пишется как ишь (hain), а иызр (ханс) «смех» часто спутывается с иьзр (ханса) «гусь, лебедь». Однако не слишком трудно и даже полезно различить их. Анусвара следует за гласным и имеет в языке хинди значение ґю, Ѕрю, Врю, Ррю, or Щрю. Ўь – это либо Ўґю (как в Ёьо±рРр «браслет»), или ЎЅрю (как в ЩрРррчЬьёрРр «развлечение»), или ЎВрю (как в ЎьАр «яйцо»), или ЎРрю (как в ЧрьЗЬ «обезьяна»), или ЎЩрю (как в врьЧрр «длинный»). Назализация, напротив, является модификацией произношения самого гласного: Ўы = носовой Ў, Ёо ы= Ёюо + Ўы (а не Ёюо + Ў + Щрю как Ёьо «был бы»), иш = и + ¦ч ы (а не и + ¦ч + Щрю или ишь).

Знак ‘ ь’ (анусвара) над гласной может представлять любую из согласных ґ, Ѕр, Вр, Рр и Щр (которые произносятся после гласной).

(a) ‘ ь’ (анусвара), помещенная над гласной или согласной + гласная, может представлять, как уже было отмечено [(2) (d)], любой из пяти носовых звуков (`ґю, Ѕрю, Врю, Ррю and Щрю), сочетающийся со следующей согласной.

(b) Носовые, как правило, сочетаются только с согласными их собственного класса (варга), или с другим носовым, или с Ър, Ь, вр, гр, др, жр, зр и и.

(Сочетания наподобие Врю + Ёо или Ѕрю+Ср, например, никогда не встречаются в хинди).

Обычными являются следующие сочетания:
ґю+Ё (®р, ±р, ір, Рр, Щр);
Ѕрю+µр (¶, ёр, »р, ЅРр);
Врю+ѕ (ї, А, Б, Вр, Щр, Ър, гр, и);
Ррю+Гр (Жр, З, Пр, Рр, Щр, Ър, гр, др,зр, и);
Щрю+Ср (То, Чр, Шр, Щр, Вр, Рр, Ър, Ь, вр, гр, др, зр, и).

(c) Во всех словах, носовые могут быть заменены анусварой, если они сопровождаются первыми четырьмя буквами их собственного разряда. Таким образом, Срґю®рр «опахало» может писаться как Срь®рр, Шрґю±ру «щетка, метла» – как Шрь±ру, СрЅёрр «лапа» – как Срьёрр, ЎРПрр «слепой» – как ЎьПрр, ЎВАр «яйцо» – как ЎьАр, ЧрЩЧрэб «Бомбей» – как ЧрьЧрэб и т. д. Исключение: ЩрфРРрр «младенец» (а не ЩрфьРрр). Также не возможно написание ЎьЩрр, ГрфьирЬр, зрьЩррРр и т. д.

(d) Тем не менее, Ррю перед др или зр должно быть анусварой. ЧрРзру «флейта» должно писаться Чрьзру, а ЩрРдрр «желание, цель» должно писаться Щрьдрр.

(e) Щрю на конце слова и перед согласной превращается в анусвару. зрЩрю + Ъррч±р = зрьЪррч±р «союз, соединение, сочетание, шанс», зрЩрю+зррЬ=зрьзррЬ «круговерть бытия, мир», зрЩрю + ирЬ = зрьирЬ «сокрушение, разрушение, убийство».

Знак ‘:’ (висарга), идущий за гласной, представляет звук ‘х’ (и). Он появляется исключительно в словах санскритского происхождения (¶:, т¶: – исключения) после гласной: ЎГр: (атах – «отсюда, поэтому»), ТоврГр: (пхалатах – «следовательно»).

Некоторые арабские, персидские и английские согласные, обнаруживаемые в заимствованиях из этих языков, обозначаются следующими буквами с точкой – «о, ®яр, Ір, єр. Звуки «о, ®яр, Ір, єр и Хо встречаются только в правильном произношении образованных людей, знающих арабский, персидский, турецкий и английский языки. В обычной речи они заменяются на Ёо, ®р, ±р, ёр и То.

Ўрщ обозначает о в английских словах наподобие office (ЎрщтТозр), college (Ёорщврчёр) и др.

Все звуки человеческой речи производятся на выдохе (или вдохе), когда воздух проходит через гортань и впадины рта и носа. Гортань – это полость в горле (расположенная сразу за «Адамовым яблоком»), в которой имеются две голосовые связки. Последние напоминают две губы, натянутые горизонтально. Они могут расходиться в стороны, свободно пропуская воздух, который производит глухой звук, или соприкасаться и вибрировать, производя звонкий звук.

При произношении согласных во рту создается полная или частичная преграда с помощью губ, (верхних) зубов, неба и языка. Язык может соприкасаться с верхними зубами, альвеолами (бугорками над ними) или небом и, таким образом, формировать различные по характеру звуки.

Гласные формируются, главным образом, с помощью гортани. Вибрация голосовых связок производит «голос», а различные видоизменения «формы воздушного коридора выше гортани» обусловливают характер гласных. Этот проход назвают резонансной полостью. Формой воздушного коридора выше гортани и, следовательно, качеством гласного управляют, в основном, с помощью положения губ (D. Jones).

Два гласных, соединяясь в один слог, формируют дифтонг.

3. (1) Ў (a) – краткий, полуоткрытый, средний гласный.

ЎЧр (аб – «теперь»), Ў±рЬ (агар – «если»).

Ўр (a) – долгий, открытый гласный заднего ряда.

Ўр±р (а-аг) «огонь», ЎрСр (a-аp) «Вы» (почтительное).

э (и) - краткий, закрытый, передний гласный.

эПрЬ (идхар) «сюда», эЁозрї (иксатх) «шестьдесят один».

эб (и-и) – долгий, закрытый, передний гласный.

эбдр (и-иш) «Бог», эб®р (и-икх) «сахарных тростник».

Ј (u) – краткий, закрытый, заднего ряда, округленный гласный.

ЈПрЬ (удхар) 'туда'. ЈЗЪр (удай) «восход».

¤ (у-у) долгий, закрытый, заднего ряда, округленный гласный.

¤СрЬ (у-упар) «вверх, вверху», ¤Рр (у-ун) «шерсть».

Ґ (ры) краткий и произносится как ri в английском слове rip:
ҐВр (rn) «долг». См. (1). В хинди Ґ не гласный звук, а просто сочетание согласного р+и (в некоторых южно-индийских языках ему соответствует р+у). Он включается в состав гласных, потому что в санскрите он имел значение истинного гласного.

¦ (э) – долгий, полузакрытый, передний гласный.

¦Ёо (эк) «один».
¦ч (ай) – долгий, полуоткрытый, передний гласный.

¦чЧр (айб) «дефект, недостаток», ¦чРрЁо (айнак) «очки».

Ўрч (o) – долгий, полузакрытый, гласный заднего ряда.

Ўрччзр (ос) «роса», Ўрчи! (ох) «о!»

Ўрш (ау) – долгий, полуоткрытый гласный заднего ряда.

ЎршЬГр (аурат) «женщина», ЎршЬ (аур) «и, больше».

(2) э-эб, Ј-¤, а так же Ў-Ў р являются парами кратких и долгих гласных.

(3) ¦ч и Ўрш в хинди и санскритских словах обычно являются долгими гласными. Однако, в «ученом» произношении санскритских слов, заимствованных в язык хинди, или перед полугласными Ър (ЩршЪрр майя «мать») и гр (Ёоршгрр каува «ворона») ¦ч и Ўрш превращаются в отчетливые дифтонги и произносятся как Ўэ (ай) и ЎЈ (ау) соответственно.

(4) Любой гласный, краткий или долгий, может гнусавиться (произноситься через нос): Ўы aн, Ўры a-ан, ¦ы эн, Ўрчь он:

Ўры®р (анкх) «глаз», эб ьѕ (и-инт) «кирпич», ¤ыѕ (у-унт) «верблюд», Ўрчьї (онТх) «губы».

Первые двадцать пять согласных, начиная с Ёо и по Щр, разделены на пять разрядов.

Ёо ®р ±р ір ґ мягкие палатальные (Ka-varga т.е. ка-разряд)
µр ¶ ёр »р Ѕр палатальные (ча-варга, т.е. ча-разряд)
ѕ ї А Б Вр церебральные или ретрофлексные
(Та-варга, т.е. Та-разряд)
Гр Жр З Пр Рр дентальные или альвеолярные (та-варга, т.е. та-разряд).
Ср То Чр Шр лабьяльные или губные (па-варга или па-разряд).

(b) В первой колонке расположены глухие, во второй – глухие-придыхательные, в третьей – звонкие, в четвертой – звонкие-придыхательные, а в пятой – соответствующие своему разряду носовые.

Ёо (k): ЁоЧр (kab) «когда?»; ЁоЩрвр (kamal) «лотус».

®р (kh): ®р±р «птица»; ®рѕЩрвр (khatmal) «ошибка».

±р (g): ±рЬЩр (garam) `горячий`; ±рЬЗРр (gardan) «шея».

ір (gh): ірЬ (ghar) «дом».

ґ (n): Ўґ±р (ang) «тело»; зрґю±р (sang) «союз, общество».

Примечание: согласные с придыханием должны ясно отличаться от непридыхательных звуков.

Палатальные звуки образуются при прикосновении спинки языка с твердым небом.

µр (c): µрѕСрѕ (cat-pat) «быстро»; µрСрГр (capat) «удар».

¶ (ch): ¶Гр (chat) «крыша, потолок»; ¶вр (chal) «обман, мошенничество».

ёр (j): ёрЧр (jab) «когда»; ёрЪр (jay) «победа».

»р (jh): »рѕ (jhat) «быстро, сразу»; »рврЁо (jhalak) `jhalak «проблеск, сияние».

Ѕр (n): СрЅрюµр (panc) «пять»; (ЩрЅрюµр) (manc) «сцена, платформа.

Церебральные или ретрофлексные звуки образуются соприкосновением нижней стороны кончика языка, загнутого назад к небу. Условимся обозначать эти звуки в транскрипции заглавными буквами.

ѕ (t): ѕРр (Tan) «тонна»; ѕЩрѕЩр (tamtam) «тандем».

ї (th): ї±р (Thag) «головорез, обманщик».

А (d): АЬ (Dar) «страх»; А±р (dag) «нога, шаг».

Б (dh): БЧр (Dhab) «путь, манера».

Вр (n): ҐВр [Rin] «долг», ±рВр (gan) «группа». (Вр встречается только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита, и даже в них никогда в начале слова).

Примечание: Церебральные – это особые индийские звуки, не имеющие соответствия в европейских языках.

Дентальные образуются касанием кончика языка верхних зубов, а не альвеол (за исключением Рр), как в английском языке.

Гр (t): ГрЧр (tab) «тогда»; Грѕ (tat) «берег».

Жр (th): ЖрРр (than) «сосок».

З (d): ЗЩрРр (daman) «подавление, контроль»; Ззр (das) «десять».

Пр (dh): ПрРр (dhan) «деньги, богатство»; ПрАя (dhar) «туловище, тело».

Рр (n): Рр±рЬ (nagar) «город»; РрЩрЁо (namak) «соль».

Лабьяльные или губные.

Ср (p): СрЁоАя (pakar); СрµрСрРр (pacpan) «пятьдесят пять».

То (ph): Товр (phal) «плод»; ТоРр, (phan) «капюшон змеи».

Чр (b) ЧрѕРр (button); ЧрЬ±рЗ (bargad) «баньян».

Шр (bh): ШрЪр (bhay) «страх»; ШргрРр (bhavan) «дом».

Щр (m): Щр±рЬ (magar) «крокодил»; ЩрРр (man) «ум».

Ър (y) произносится как русское «й»: Ъри (yah) «этоб он» Ърдр (yash) «слава, известность».

Ь (к) произносится как русское «р»: Ьэбзр (rais) «богатый (человек); э Ьзр (ras) «роса, сок, вкус».

вр (l) произносится как русское «ль»: врµрЁо (lacak), «эластичность»; вриЬ (lahar) «волна».

 гр (v) произносится как русское «в» или «у»: грРр (van), «лес»; грµрРр (vacan) «слово, речь, высказывание».

Фрикативные или шипящие (др, жр и зр)

др (sh) произносится как русское «шь»: дрЁоЬ (шакар) «сахар»; дриЬ (shahar) «город».

жр (SH) произносится как русское «ш» твердое. Условимся обозначать в транскрипции мягкое «ш» маленькой буквой, а твердое ­– заглавной. Встречается в санскритских заимствованиях. В хинди его произношение не отличается от др: жрѕю (ШаТ) «шесть».

зр (s): зрЧр (sab) «все»; зрЩр»р (samajh) «понимание».

и (h) произносится как русское «х»: иЩр (ham) «мы»; ивр (hal) «плуг».

(1) ґ (R) и Бя (Rh) являются ретрофлексными и звонкими.

(2) ёрАя (jaR) «корень», ЧрАя (baR) «баньян», ±рБя (gaRh) «крепость», СрБ (paRh) «читай!».

(3) Ая и Бя никогда не появляются в начале слова.

(4) Не следует их смешивать с ретрофлексными, хотя в произношении они часто не различимы А (Д) and Б (Дх).

(5) Эти звуки характерны только для хинди. Они не встречаются в санскрите или европейских языках.

Знак придыхания в виде двоеточия на конце слова : (h) именуется «висаргой». Встречается почти исключительно в санскритских словах (¶:, т¶: – исключения) после гласной: ЎГр: (atah) «поэтому», ТоврГр: (phalatah) «следовательно».

Согласная «о (q) встречается в заимствованиях из арабского, персидского и турецкого. Это – глухой гортанный «к»: «оЗ (qad) «размер, рост», ЁоГрэб (qatai) «вполне, всецело, совершенно».

®яр (х), Ір (г-глухое), єр (з) и Хо (ф) – фрикативные как и др, жр, зр и и. Они появляются только в заимствованиях из арабского и персидского, последние две характерны также для заимствований из английского. ®яр и Хо – глухие, Ір и єр – звонкие: ®ярЧрЬ (xabar) «новость», ІрЩр (gam) «печаль, сожаление». єр (z) – звонкое зр. єриЬ (zahar) «яд». Хо (ф) отлично от То (пх) и является глухим гр: ТоЁоГр (faqat) «только, единственно», ТоГри (fatah) «победа».

Звуки «о, ®яр, Ір, єр и Хо обычно заменяются на Ёо, ®р, ±р, ёр и То..

Некоторые сочетания согласных, такие как Ри, Щи и ви могут напоминать придыхательные Ррю, Щрю и врю, хотя таковыми не являются: ЈРичь (u-nhen) «им», ГрфЩирЬр (tu-mha-ra) «ваш», ЁфовирАяу (ku-lha-Ri) «топор», РрРир «маленький».

В том случае, когда нужно показать, что согласная буква произносится без присущей ей «а», под ней ставится знак вроде запятой, называемый Халь (или Халанта)
k = Ёюо, Ь = Ью, d = Зю и т. д. На практике этот знак частенько опускается.

Отметим несколько правил относительно присущего Ў, которые харатерны для разговорного хинди:

(a) Присущий Ў на конце слов не произносится: ЁорЩр (kama) «работа» произносится как ЁорЩрю (kam), ЁоЩрвр (kamala) «лотос» – как ЁоЩрврю (kamal), ЩрРр (mana) «ум» – как ЩрРрю (man), ЎрЬрЩр (arama) «отдых» – как ЎрЬрЩрю (aram).

Присущее Ў также не произносится в середине трех- и более сложных слов, оказываясь между двумя произносимыми:

µрврѕр (ca-la-ta) «идущий» – как µрврюГрр (cal-ta);
ЩрГрврЧр (ma-ta-la-ba) «цель, смысл, значение» – как ЩрГрюврЧрю (mat-lab).

РррЩр (nam) «имя», ЬрГр (rat) «ночь», тЁоГррЧр (kitab) «книга», ШрЬРрр (bharna) «наполнять», зрх®рРрр (sukhna) «сушить», ЁоЬГрЧр (kartab) «действие, поступок», ЎрЗЩру (admi) «человек», ЧрµрСрРр (bachpan) «детство», ®ррРр-СррРр (khan-pan) «еда и питье», зррЩрРрр «перед, встреча лицом к лицу», зррЩррРр (saman) «вещи, багаж».

Утрата произношения конечного Ў отразилась в нескольких случаях на письме:ЎШру, ГрШру и т. д.

ЎЧр + иу «теперь же» (три слога) = ЎЧрю + иу (ab-hi– два слога) = ЎШру (abhi).

ГрфЩиу «ты сам же» из ГрфЩр + иу (произносимого ГрфЩрю + иу).

Все местоимения в единственном и множественном числе в прямом или косвенном падеже могут сочетать с усилительной частицей иу:
Щршь иу «я сам же», Грх иу «ты же»,
ЎрСр иу «Вы сами же», Ёорчэб иу «кто-нибудь же, любой же»,
Ёфо¶ иу «что-нибудь же».

Большинство этих сложных слов подвержены правил сочетания звуков (сандхи) [50 (c) and 9 (d)]:

Щрф»р + иу = Щрф»ру, Грф»р + иу = Грф»ру, иЩр + иу = иЩру,

ГрфЩр + иу = ГрфЩиу (ГрфЩиуь), гри + иу = гриу, Ъри + иу = Ъриу,
Јзр + иу = Јзру, эзр+ иу = эзру, тёрзр + иу = тёрзру,
тЁозр + иу = тЁозру, ЈРр + иу = ЈРиу, эРр + иу = эРиу,

тёрРр + иу = тёрРиу, тЁоРр + иу = тЁоРиу (тЁоРиуь).

Но в грамотном произношении санскритских слов присущее «а» Ў не опускается, особенно в словах, заканчивающихся на Ър или гр, напр., ГрРрЪр (ta-na-ya) «сын», ЩррРргр (ma-na-va) «человек», или на сочетание согласных: СЯрЬЩШр (prarambha) «начало», ЩрРлр (mantra) «стих-заклинание», зргрб (sarva) «все», ПрРЪр (dhanya) «богатый, счастливый»».

(e) В стихах произношение присущего Ў зависит от ритма и рифмы:

тЗгрзр Ёор ЎгрзррРр зрЩруСр Жрр – divas ka avasan samip tha;
Ўры®р Ёор Ўршзрхь БяврЁоГрр Зч®рЁоЬ – akh ka asu Dhalak-ta dehk kar.

Вследствие опускания конечного Ў в разговорном хинди конечная произносимая согласная предыдущего слова сливается по законам благозвучия с первой согласной следующего слова: АрЁо (dak) «почта» + ірЬ (ghar) «дом», пишущиеся как АрЁоірЬ «почтовое отделение», произносятся как Ар±ірЬ (dagghar) (ср. 49-b-1);

¦Ёо (ek) «один» + ±ррАу (gari) «повозка» произносится как ¦±±ррАяу (eggari) (49-b-1);

ЎрПр (adh) «половина» + зрчЬ (ser) «сэр, мера веса» (ок. 1 кг) или «мера жидкости» (ок. 1 л) произносятся как ЎрззрчЬ (asser) «полу-сэр» (фунт).

СртВАГр + ёру = СртВАёёру «брахман или священник», (cf 49-b-5),

Срифьµр + ёррРрр = СрифыёёррРрр «прибыть» (cf 49-b-1),

ЩррЬ + Арврр = ЩррАюАрврр «убит»,

эПрЬ + вррЎрч = эПрввррЎрч «принеси сюда».

Краткое Ў после согласных не пишется вовсе (впрочем, можно считать, что оно обозначено присущей большинству согласных вертикальной чертой). Другие гласные после согласных заменяются особыми знаками (именуемыми матра, «мера»). Исходно это были порядковые числительные «первый» и «второй», которыми обозначались краткий и долгий гласные. Эти «меры» (долготы) пишутся слева и справа, сверху и снизу согласной. Например, k + i (Ёюо + э) пишется тЁо, k + u (Ёюо + Ј) пишется как Ёфо.

Матры имеют следующий вид и значение:

Ўр = р, э = т, эб = у, Ј = ф, ¤ = х

Ґ = ц, ¦ = ч, ¦ч = ш, Ўрч = рч, Ўрш = рш.

р (Ўр), у (эб), рч (Ўрч) и рш (Ўрш) пишутся после согласной, т (э) – перед, ф (Ј), х (¤) и ц (Ґ) – под, а ч (¦) и (¦ч) – над:

Ёюо + Ўр = Ёор

Ёюо + Ґ = Ёцо
Ёюо + э = тЁо

Ёюо + эб = Ёоу

Ёюо + ¦ = Ёчо
Ёюо + ¦ч = Ёшо
Ёюо + Ј = Ёфо

Ёюо + ¤ = Ёхо

(исключение: Ью + Ј = Э, Ью + ¤ = Ю)

Ёюо + Ўрч = Ёорч
Ёюо + Ўрш = Ёорш.

В носовых (anunasika) знак Candra-bindu помещается над слогом: Ёыо, Ёоры, Ёфоы, Ёхыо, но если слог содержит вверху матру, то вместо ы пишется только точка справа от матры: тЁьоо, Ёоуь, Ёчьо, Ёшьо, Ёорчь, Ёоршь.

(1) Висарга всегда помещается после слога на гласную: Зф:®р (duhkh) «боль, страдание», тРр:зруЩр (nihsim) «безграничный».

(b) Анусвара ` ь` помещается над гласной (ЎьЁо) или открытым слогом, после которого она произносится (ЎрРрзрЗ).

Две или более согласных, произносимых слитно (напр., Ёюо + Ёо = ЁюоЁо (kka), Ёюо + Ърр = ЁюоЪрр (kya) «что?»), на письме образуют особые сочетания, именуемые лигатурами.

Знак Hal в примерах выше (ЁюоЪрр) используется только на конце санскритских слов (ЩрирРрю (mahan) «великий»). Сливаясь, согласные (чаще предшествующие) теряют часть своего алфавитного начертания: Ёюо перед другими согласными пишется как: ©Ърр (= ЁюоЪрр); но в сочетании А + Б = АюБ последующая Б, пишущаяся под А, утрачивает коротенькую вертикальную черточку. В сочетании Зю + Щр = Лр урезаются обе согласные.

(a) Большинство предшествующих согласных в лигатуре теряют свою вертикальную черту, обозначающую присущее слоговое «а»:

±рю + ір = ±ір, µрю + ¶ = µ¶,

Грю + Жр = ГЖр, Ѕр + µр = Ѕµр.

(b) Некоторые утрачивают только вертикальную получерту: Ёюо + Ър = ©Ър, Тюо + Ър = УЪр.

(c) Те согласные, которые не имеют вертикальной черты (ґ, ¶, ѕ, ї, А, Б, З и и), не изменяются и и могут писаться со знаком отмены «а»: ґю + Ёо = ґюЁо,

ѕю + ї = ѕюї и т.д.

Часто такие закругленные согласные пишутся последовательно, но нередко одна над другой (при этом вертикальная черта может быть опущена у последующей-нижней согласной): ѕю + ѕ =ѕюѕ, ѕю +ї = ѕюї, Аю + Б = АюБ, Зю + Пр =К, ґ +Ёо = ґюЁо, ию +Рр = йРр, и + гр = йгр.

Исключение: Ь перед согласной пишется над ней:

Ью + ±р = ±рб, Ью + µр = µрб, Ью + З = Зб.

Когда же Ь следует за согласной, имеющей вертикальную черту, она пишется слева как наклонная черта:

Ёюо + Ь = Єо, ёр + Ь = ёЯ, Зю + Ь = Н.

После ѕ, ї, А, Б, ¶ она пишется снизу как крышечка: ѕю +Ь =ѕа, Аю +Ь = Аа.

Ёюо + жр = кр (kSha).

Гр + Ь = лр (tra).

ёрю + Ѕр = мр (джня, ёЅр (jna) – правильное санскритское произношение), обычно в хинди звучит как ±Ъры (gyan) или ±Ър (gya).

Иногда последние три лигатуры включаеются в алфавит.

Произношение анусвары ( ь) зависит от последующей согласной и может принимать значения носового разных разрядов: ґ, ЅРр, Вр, Рр, Щр:

Ёьоірр = Ёоґюірр «гребешок», ЁьоµрРр = ЁоЅµрРр «золото» и т.д.

Ър и Щр в лигатурах после согласной иногда меняют свои очертания, но остаются вполне узнаваемыми:

ию + Ър = йЪр, ию + Щр = йЩр, Ёюо + Ър = ©Ър, Ёюо + Щр = ©Щр,

Зю + Щр = Лр, Зю + Ър = ЗюЪр (часто Мр).

Зю + гр = О, Зю + Пр = К, Зю + З = Й.
Срю + Рр = СРр или СРр,

ірю + Рр=іРр или іРр,

Ёюо + Ёо = ©Ёо или ©Ёо,

Ёюо + Ь = Єо или Єо,

Ёюо + Рр = ©Рр или ©Рр,

Ёою + Гр = ©Гр или ©Гр,

Ёюо + гр = ©гр или ©гр,

Ёюо + вр = ©вр или ©вр,

дрю + Ь = е,

дрю + гр = дгр или дгр,

дрю + µр = дµр или дµр,

µрю + µр = µµр или µµр,

врю + вр = ввр или ввр,

Ѕр + µр = Ѕµр или Ѕµр.

(a) Сочетания лигатур с матрами гласных:

Ёюо + Ью + эб = Єоу,

Грю + Ью + эб = лру,

Ёюо + жрю + Ј = крф,

Ёюо + Ърю + Ўрч ь= ©Ъррчь (kyon) «почему».

зрю + Грю + Ь = злр,

ґю + Ёюо + Гр = ґю©Гр или ґ©Гр,

Ррю + Зю + Ь = РН,

Грю + зрю + Рр = ГзРр,

Ью + Грю + Ър = ГЪрб,

Ью + Ёюо + жрю + Ър = кЪрб и т.д.

(А) Носовые сочетаются с согласными своего разряда (варга), с другими носовыми или с Ър, Ь, вр, гр, др, жр, зр и и.

(В хинди не может быть сочетаний вроде Врю + Ёо или
Ѕрю + Ср).

Обычными сочетаниями являются следующие:
ґю + Ёо (®р, ±р, ір, Рр, Щр);
Ѕрю+ µр (¶, ёр, »р, ЅРр);
Врю + ї (А, Б, Вр, Щр, Ър, гр, и);
Ррю + Гр (Жр, З, Пр, Рр, Щр, Ър, гр, др,зр, и);
Щрю + Ср (То, Чр, Шр, Щр, Вр, Рр, Ър, Ь, вр, гр, др, зр, и).

(b) Щрю в конце слова перед согласной превращается в анусвару: зрЩрю + Ъррч±р = зрьЪррч±р «сочетание, возможность», зрЩрю + зррЬ = зрьзррЬ «мир», зрЩрю + ирЬ = зрьирЬ «убийство, разрушение».

Анусвара произносится

как ґю перед Ёо, ®р, ±р, ір :

Срь®рр (pankha) «опахало», Грь±р (tang) «узкий», почти как ґю перед и : современное произношение тьзри (sinha) «лев» – тзрґюір (singha) или тьзри (sinha);

как Щрю перед Ср, То, Чр, Шр и гр : µрьСрр (campa) «цветок», РрьЧрЬ (nambar) «номер», зрьгрГрю (samvat) «эра, год»;

почти как ЅРрю перед Ър : зрьЪрЩр (sanyam) «самоконтроль», зрьЪррч±р (sanyog) «соединение, возможность»;

как Ррю перед остальными согласными: зрьГр (sant) «святой», ЧрьЗЬ (bandar) «обезъяна», ЎьАр (anda) «яйцо», зрьµрЪр (sancay) «собрание, коллекция», Срьёрр (panja) «лапа», зрьзррЬ (sansar) «мир», зрьЬкрЁо (sanraksak) «защитник, охранник», зрьвр±Рр (sanlagn) «приложенный», зрьдрЪр (sanshay) «сомнение».

Примечание: анусвара не появляется перед ґ, ЅРр и Вр.

За исключением заимствованных слов анусвара не встречается после долгих гласных: Ўры®р «глаз», эбѕ «кирпич», ¤ыѕ «верблюд», иры «да», Арьч±ру «каноэ», ГрчьЗфЎр «леопард», Шршьзрр «буйвол», µррьшЁоРрр «пугаться» содержат анунасику (носовые гласные). В некоторых случаях даже исконная (санскритская) анусвара заменяется на анунаику (Ёорызрр «бронза» восходит к санскритскому ЁорьзЪр).

Долгие гласные в хинди часто пишутся с анусварой, но произносятся как назализованные (анунасика): ГрчьыЗфЎр = ГрчьЗфЎр «леопард» (tEdua, а не tendua); и даже иногда краткие носовые гласные пишутся с анусварой: ЎьПрчЬр вместо ЎыПрчЬр «темнота», ±рьгррЬ вместо ±рыгррЬ «rustic», ¶ьѕРрр вместо ¶ыѕРрр «рассеиваться» и т.д.

Акцент – выделение слога более высоким тоном или напряжением (силой выдоха, громкостью).

В современных европейских языках, таких как английский, русский и др., акцент представлен напряжением. Ведийский санскрит, древнегреческий и латынь имели музыкальное тоновое ударение. Каждый слог содержит только один гласный, а каждый согласный произносится с предшествущей или последующей гласной. Несколько согласных могут «принадлежать» одному и тому же самому гласному.

В языке хинди разделение слова на слоги подчиняется слудующим правилам.

Одна или несколько согласных в начале слова принадлежат следующему гласному: ёррРрр (ja-na) «идти», СЯрЬ±ру (prani) «существо, живое существо», зрфРрр (su-na) «услышал».

Согласная в конце слова «принадлежит» предшествующей гласной ЁоЩрвр (ka-mal) «лотос» (присущий букве вр звук Ў не произносится).

Вследствие утраты конечного Ў в разговорном языке последняя согласная сцепляется (сандхи) с первой согласной следующего слова. Таким образом, АрЁо (dak) «почта» + ірЬ (ghar) «дом» пишутся как АрЁоірЬ «почта» и произносятся как Ар±ірЬ (dagghar) (сравни 49-b-1); ¦Ёо (ek) «один + ±ррАу (gari) «вагон» произносятся как ¦±±ррАяу (eggari) (49-b-1), ЎрПр (adh) «половина» + зрчЬ (ser) произносятся как ЎрззрчЬ (asser) (один фунт веса). Точно так же СртВАГр + ёру = СртВАёёру «брахман или священник» (сравни 49-b-5), Срифьµр + ёррРрр = СрифыёёррРрр, «достичь, прибыть», (сравни 49-b-1), ЩррЬ + Арврр = ЩррАюАрврр («убит»), эПрЬ + вррЎрч = эПрввррЎрч «принеси сюда».

Согласный внутри слова обычно принадлежит следующей гласной: зргрчЬр (sa-ve-ra) «утро», РрЗу (na-di) «река». Первая из нескольких согласных внутри слова принадлежит предыдущей гласной, а остальные – следующей: ЩрРлру (man-tri) «министр, секретарь», µрРНЩрр (can-dra-ma) «луна», ЎРГЪр (an-tya) «последний, заключительный», ЎкрЬ (ak-SHa-ra) (not a-kSHa-ra) «слог», ЎтОГруЪр (ad-vi-ti-ya) (not a-dvi-ti-ya) «уникальный, несравненный». Ри, Щи и ви – исключения из вышеприведенного правила. Фактически, их нужно рассматривать скорее как придыхательные формы Ррю, Щрюю и врю , чем как лигатуры. Таким образом, ЈРичь (u-nhe)ь (u-nhe) «к ним», ГрфЩирЬр (tu-mha-ra) «ваш, ваши», ЁфовирАяу (ku-lha-ri) «топор». Однако, РрРир – nan-ha («маленький, крошечный»).

Слог, заканчивающийся на согласный, называют закрытым, а заканчивающийся на гласный –открытым. Слог является долгим, если он содержит долгую гласную или является закрытым. Слог, заканчивающийся краткой гласной, является кратким.

В хинди имеется силовое ударение, хотя оно не является столь же отчетливым, как, например, в европейских языках.

Главные правила расстановки ударений следующие:

Как правило, акцентируется только один слог.

В словах из двух или более слогов акцентируется долгий.

±рЪрр (ga-yA) «пошел или ушедший», тµрГрр (ci-tA) «костер», зррПрф (sA-dhu) «святой, святой», эРЗф (In-du) «луна», ЎРрфШргру (a-nu-bha-vI) «опытный», ЎРрфЩрчЪр (a-nu-me-ya) «выводимый (логически)», ЎРррЩрЪр (a-nA-may) «здоровье», ЗьАтгртПр (dAn-da-vi-dhi) «уголовное право» и т.д.

Если слово содержит больше одного долгого слога, предпоследний, если долгий, акцентируется:

(ёррРрр) (jA-nA), «идти», ЎрЗЩру (Ad-mI) «человек», твр®рРрр (lIkh-na) «писать», ЁоГррб (kAr-tA) «деятель», ЧрРЗЬ (bAn-dAr) «обезьяна», эьНрВру (In-drA-NI) «жена Индра», ЁоЬрРрр (ka-rA-nA) «заставить сделать», тЁоЬрЪрр (ki-rA-yA) «арендная плата или плата за проезд», ±рфЭЎрРру (gu-ru-A-nI) «жена наставника», ёр±рЩр±ррРрр (jag-ma-gA-nA), «заставить искриться, блестеть», ЁоµриЬу (ka-cAh-rI) «суд».

Последний слог никогда не акцентируется, если, конечно, это не единственный длинный слог в слове.

µрРНЩрр (cAn-dra-mA) «луна», зрґю±ртГр (sAn-ga-ti) «компания», СртгрлрГрр (pa-vi-tra-tA) «чистота, неприкосновенность», µрРНЩрф®ру (cAn-dra-mukhI) «луноликая», зрргрбёртРрЁо (sAr-wa-ja-nik) «общественный».

В словах, состоящих только из кратких слогов, акцентируется предпоследний: ЩртГр (ma-ti) «мнение, понимание, смысл», зрфЩртГр (su-ma-ti) «хорошее понимание, здравый смысл», ЎтгртЗГр (a-vidit) «неизвестный».

В слове ЩрГрврЧр (mAt-lAb) «цель, значение, смысл» два долгих слога (а не четыре кратких), и ударение падает на первый.

Присущий Ў никогда не опускается в первом слоге слова и в положениях, когда перед или после него имеется другой опущенный Ў :

µрврѕр (саl-ta) «движущийся»;

ЁоЩрвр (kamal) «лотос»,

РррЩр (nAm) «имя, название», ЬрГр (rAt) «ночь», тЁоГррЧр (kitAb) «книга», ШрЬРрр (bharnA) «наполнять», зрх®рРрр (sukhnA) «сушить», ЁоЬГрЧр (kartab) «дело, поступок», ЎрЗЩру (AdmI) «человек», ЧрµрСрРр (bachpan) «детство», ®ррРр-СррРр (khAn-pAn) «пища и напиток», зррЩрРрр (sAmnA) «встреча с глазу на глаз», зррЩррРр (sAmAn) «материал, багаж».

«Сандхи» (букв. «соединение звуков)» означает все изменения звуков, возникающие при их соединении для простоты произношения.

В словах, заимствованных из санскрита, естественно, действуют правила санскритского сандхи.

Самые важные из них даются ниже:

VOWELS:-

Ў + Ў, Ў + Ўр, Ўр + Ў or Ўр + Ўр = Ўр:
зрхЪрб + ЎзГр = зрхЪррбзГр, «заход солнца».
СрЬЩр + ЎрГЩрр = СрЬЩррГЩрр «свехъестество, всевышнее начало, бог».
тгрМрр + ЎШЪррзр = тгрМррШЪррзр «постижение науки, изучение».
тгрМрр+ЎрврЪр = тгрМррврЪр «училище, школа».
э + э, э + эб, эб + э or эб + эб = эб:
ЎтШр + эжѕ = ЎШружѕ «желаемый».
СртЬ + эбкрр = СрЬукрр «осмотр, экзамен».
Щриу + эРН = ЩриуРН «владыка земли, царь».
ЬёрРру + эбдр = ЬёрРрудр «владыка ночи, месяц».

Ј + Ј, Ј + ¤, ¤ + Ј или ¤ + ¤ = ¤:
зрф + Јт©Гр = зрхт©Гр «хорошее изречение».
Чриф + ¤ёрб = Чрихёрб «многосильный».
Ў + э, Ўр + э, Ў + эб или Ўр + эб = ¦:
дрфШр + эµ¶ф = дрфШрчµ¶ф «благожелатель».
Щрир + эРН = ЩричРН «великий Индра».
РрЬ + эбдр = РрЬчдр «повелитель людей, царь».
Щрир + эбдгрЬ = ЩричдгрЬ «великий господь, Шива»`.
Ў + Ј, Ўр + Ј, Ў + ¤, Ўр + ¤ = Ўрч:
зргрб + ЈЗЪр = зргррчбЗЪр «всеобщее благо».
Щрир + ЈГзргр = ЩрирчГзргр «большой праздник».
Рргр + ¤Бяр = РргррчБяр «новобрачная».
Щрир + ¤тЩрб = ЩрирчтЩрб «высокая волна».
Ў + Ґ или Ўр + Ґ = ЎЬю:
зрСГр + Ґтжр = зрСГртжрб «Семь Мудрецов», ныне созвездие Большой Медведицы.
Щрир + Ґтжр = Щритжрб «великий мудрец».
Ў + ¦, Ў + ¦ч, Ўр + ¦ или Ўр + ¦ч = ¦ч:
Срфлр + ¦жрВрр = СрфлршжрВрр «желание сына».
ЩрГр + ¦ч©Ър = ЩрГрш©Ър «единодушие».
зрЗр + ¦гр = зрЗшгр «всегда же».
Щрир + ¦чдгрЪрб = ЩришдгрЪрб «великое могущество, богатство».
Ў + Ўрч, Ў + Ўрш, Ўр + Ўрч или Ўр + Ўрш = Ўрш:
ЎПрЬ + Ўрчжї = ЎПрЬршжї «нижняя губа».
СрЬЩр + ЎршжрПр = СрЬЩрршжрПр «наилучшее лекарство».
Щрир + Ўрчёрзрю = Щриршёрзрю «великосильный, великолепный».
Щрир + ЎршГзрф©Ър = ЩриршГзрф©Ър «большое рвение, стремление».

э или эб перед любой другой гласной кроме э или эб изменяется в Ърю:

ЎтШр + ЈЗЪр = ЎШЪрфЗЪр «процветание».
этГр + ЎртЗ = эГЪрртЗ «и так далее».
СЯтГр + ¦Ёо = СЯГЪрчЁо «каждый».
РрЗу + ЎЩЧрф = РрМрЩЧрф «речная вода».

Ј или ¤ перед любой гласной кроме Ј или ¤
изменяется на грю:
зрф + Ўр±рГр = згрр±рГр «добро пожаловать».
грПрх + Ўр±рЩрРр = грПгрр±рЩрРр «прибытие невесты».
Ґ перед любой гласной кроме Ґ изменяется на Ью:

тСрГрц + Ўрмрр = тСрлррмрр «приказ отца».

ЁоГрц + эб = Ёолруь «исполнительница».
Ўрч + Ў = Ўрч (но не внутри слова);

Примечание: элизия Ў после ¦ и Ўрч обычно обозначается знаком именуемым в санскрите аваграха (Ўгр±Яи):

Грч + ЎтСр = Грч тСр; ЩрРррч + ЎРрфЁховр = ЩрРррч РрфЁховр.

СОГЛАСНЫЕ:

Ёюо, µрю, ѕю и Ср перед гласной или или звонкой согласной кроме носовой изменяется в ±рю, ёрю, Аю и Чрю соответственно:

гррЁюо + эбдр = грр±рудр «бог речи».
тЗЁюо + ±рёр = тЗ±±рёр «слон стороны света».
жрѕю + ЎрРрРр = жрАрРрРр «Шестилик, бог Сканда».
ЎСрю + ёр = ЎЧёр «рожденный в воде, лотус».

Грю перед гласной или ±р, ір, З, Пр, Чр, Шр, Ър, Ь или гр итзменяется в Зю:

ёр±рГрю + эбдр = ёр±рЗудр «господь мира».
зрГрю + ±рфЭ = зрЗю±рфЭ «святой учитель».
ЈГрю + іррѕРр = ЈЗюіррѕРр «открытие, иногюрация».
ЈГрю + ПрЬВр = ЈКЬВр «цитата».
ГрГрю + ЮСр = ГрНхСр «того же вида, подобный».

(3) Грю перед µр или ¶ изменяется в µрю :
зрГрю + µртЬлр = зрµµртЬлр «добропорядочный».
ЈГрю + ¶чЗ = Јµ¶чЗ «разрушение, отсечение».
(4) Грю + др = µ¶:

ЈГрю + дгррзр = Јµ¶югррзр «выдох».
Грю + ёр = ёёр :
зрГрю + ёрРр = зрёёрРр «добрый человек».
Грю + вр = ввр:
ГрГрю + вруРр = ГрввруРр «поглащенный».
ЈГрю + вррзр = Јввррзр «восхищение, наслаждение».

Ёюо, ѕю, Грю и Срю , а также ±рю, Аю, Зю и Чрю перед носовой согласной изменяются в ґю, Вр, Ррю и Щрю соответственно:

гррЁюо + ЩрЪр = гррґЩрЪр «словестность, литература».
жрѕю + Щрф®р = жрВЩрф®р «Шестилик, Сканда».
ёр±рГрю + РррЖр = ёр±рРРррЖр «господь мира, Вишну, Шива».
Зю + и = К:
ЈЗю + иГр = ЈКГр «гордый, заносчивый».

Ўзрю перед Ў или звонкой согласной изменяется в Ўрч:

ЩрРрзрю + ЎРрфЁховр = ЩрРррч + ЎРрфЁховр = ЩрРррчРрфЁховр :

ГЛАСНЫЕ:

Ўзрю перед Ў или перед звонкой согласной изменяется в Ў:

СрЪрзрю + СррРр = СрЪр:СррРр «молочный напиток».
ЎПрзрю + СррГр = ЎПр:СррГр «падение вниз».
Ьёрзрю + ЁоВр = Ьёр:ЁоВр «частичка пыли, пылинка».
ЩрРрзрю + ®рчЗ = ЩрРр:®рчЗ «душевная печаль».
ГрСрзрю + Товр = ГрСр:Товр «плод покаяния».
зрю перед µр или ¶ изменяется в дрю:
ГрСрзрю + µрЪррб = ГрСрдµрЪррб «занятие подвижничеством, подвижничество».
тРрзрю + ¶вр = тРрдµрвр «бесхитростный».
Зфзрю + µрЬ = ЗфдµрЬ «трудновыполнимый».

зрю после гласной кроме Ў и Ўр и перед гласной или звонкой согласной изменяется в Ью:

ЎрЪрфзр + грчЗ = ЎрЪрфгрчбЗ «жизневедение, наука долголетия, медицина».

зрю после гласной кроме Ў and Ўр и перед Ёо, ®р, Ср или То, изменяется в жрю:

тРрзрю + ЁорЩр = тРржЁорЩр «бесстрастный».
тРрзрю + Товр = тРржТовр «бесплодный».
тРрзрю + Сркр = тРржСркр «беспристрастный».

В хинди, помимо этого, есть свои правила сандхи. Они, однако, не настолько четкие и их меньше, чем в санскрите. Кроме того, большая их часть работает только в разговорном языке и не отражается в письменной форме. Они пока должным образом не исследованы и не описаны.

Некоторые из наиболее важных правил сандхи, действующие и в разговорном и письменном языке хинди, приведены ниже:

Внутри слова э и эб перед Ўр и Ўрч (или Ўры и Ўрчь) изменяются в эЪрх:

тГртЖр + Ўры (знак мн. ч. ж. р. Существительных на -э, эб или Ърр: тГртЖр – тГртЖрЪрры («дата – даты»), врАяЁоу – врАятЁоЪрры («девочка – девочки»), ЧрфтБяЪрр – ЧрфБятЪрры («старуха – старухи»).
РрЗу + Ўры = РртЗЪрры «реки».
Ьрчѕу + Ўры = ЬрчтѕЪррш «хлебцы».
дрт©Гр + Ўрч (суфф. мн. ч. звательного падежа) = дрт©ГрЪррч «О силы могущества!»
врАяЁоу + Ўрч = врАятЁоЪррч «О девочки!»
Шррэб + Ўрч = ШррэЪррч «О братья!»
Подобным же образом, врАятЁоЪррчь, ШррьэЪррчь и т.д.

Примечание: Это правило сандхи отражает принцип произношения, который обусловливает появление между э и любой другой гласной призвука «й» (Ърю), отражающегося и на письме. Призвук (у или в) грю , появляющийся между Ј и другой гласной, в письме обчно не отражается.

Долгое «у-у» (¤) перед ¦ (¦ыь) или Ўрч (Ўрчь) становится кратким:

Чрих + ¦ы (суфф. мн. ч.) = Чриф¦ы «жены».
Чрих + Ўрч (суфф. мн. ч. звательного п.) = ЧрифЎрч «О жены!».

ЎЧр «теперь», ГрЧр «тогда», ЁоЧр «когда», ёрЧр «когда» (относительное местоим.) и зрЧр «все» перед усилительной частицей иу сливаются в одно слово, а Чр становится придыхательной Шру:

ЎЧр + иу = ЎШру «прямо сейчас».
ГрЧр + иу = ГрШру «как раз тогда».
зрЧр + иу = зрШру «все до одного».

Утрата присущего Ў в вышеприведенных примерах отразилась и на письме.

Еще один пример ГрфЩиу «ты сам, вы сами» из ГрфЩр + иу, произносимого как ГрфЩрю + иу.

С наречиями эПрЬ и ЈПрЬ частица иу пишется раздельно: эПрЬ иу «как раз сюда», ЈПрЬ иу «как раз туда».

Частица иу после эзр, Јзр, тЁозр и тёрзр утрачивает и, а эб сливается с зр:

эзр + иу = эзру «этот самый».
Јзр + иу = Јзру «тот самый».
тЁозр + иу = тЁозру «какой же».
тёрзр + иу = тёрзру «именно тот, который».

Все местоимения, ед. или мн. ч. прямого или косвенного падежей могут быть объединены с усилительной частицей иу:
Щршь иу «я сам», Грх иу «ты сам»,
ЎрСр иу «Вы сами», Ёорчэб иу «любой же»,
Ёфо¶ иу «что бы то ни было, все, что угодно».

Значительная часть подобных сложных слов подвержена сандхи:

Щрф»р + иу = Щрф»ру, Грф»р + иу = Грф»ру, иЩр + иу = (иЩру), ГрфЩр + иу = ГрфЩиу (ГрфЩиуь), гри + иу = гриу, Ъри + иу = Ъриу,
Јзр + иу = Јзру, эзр + иу = эзру, тёрзр + иу = тёрзру,
тЁозр + иу = тЁозру, ЈРр + иу = ЈРиу (ЈРиуь), эРр + иу = эРиу (эРиуь), тёрРр + иу = тёрРиу (тёрРиуь), тЁоРр + иу = тЁоРиу (тЁоРиуь).

Примечание:

иу утрачивает и после Ъриры «здесь», ёриры «где (относительное местоимение) ' гриры «там» и Ёоиры «где?», а эб заменяет конечное долгое «а-а» (Ўр):

Ъриры + иу = Ъриуь «именно тут», ёриры + иу = ёриуь «где бы то ни было»,
гриры + иу = гриуь «именно там», Ёоиыр + иу = Ёоиуь «где же».

В некоторых санскритских словах правила сандхи видоизменяются:

тзлрЪррчСрЪррч±ру (striyopayogi) «подходящий или полезный для женщин» вместо правильного тзлрЪрфСрЪррч±ру.

ЈСрЬрч©Гр (uparokt) «вышеупомянутый» вместо ЈСрЪрбф©Гр:
ЎРГрЬрбжѕауЪр (antarrastriy) «международный» вместо ЎРГррЬржѕауЪр.

Присущее Ў может произноситься, особенно на конце санскритских слов на Ър или гр, напр., ГрРрЪр (ta-na-ya) «сын», ЩррРргр (ma-na-va) «человек», или после спаренных согласных:

СЯрЬЩШр (prarambha) «начало».

ЩрРлр (mantra) «заклинание».
зргрб (sarva) «всё».
ПрРЪр (dhanya) «счастливый».

Besides the above, there are also other Verbs which help in forming certain"Voices", "Moods" and"Tenses" of all the Verbs See :

Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying--

(1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.);
(2) the relation of the subject to the action (acting or acted upon)
(3) the way in which the action etc. is thought of the expressed by the speaker (as a fact, a question, a command, a possibility etc); (4) the time at which the action is thought of as taking place (present, past, future etc); and
(5) the Person, Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions.

Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival& Nautral

(a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed):

вр"яЁчо Ррч тЁоГррЧр СрБяу «the boy read the book`,
ЁоЩрврр Ррч Товр ®рр¦ «kamala ate fruits`.
дрчЬ ЩррЬр ±рЪрр «the lion will be killed`,
Щрф»рзрч µррЪр Рриуь Сру ёррГру «I can`t take tea`,
Ъри Ёоир ёррГрр иш «It is said. . . . . `.

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

ЈзрРрч ¶уьЁор «he sneezed`,
врЩяЁорчь Ррч дрчЬрчь Ёорч Зч®рр «the boys saw the lions`,
РрршЁоЬрРру Ёорч ЧрфвррЪрр ёрр¦±рр «the maid-servant will be called`,
µрвррч, зррчЪрр ёрр¦ «come, let us go to sleep`

These are called Auxiliary Verbs or merely Auxiliaries. Hindi has only three Auxiliaries:

(1) ирчРрр `to be`, with its several forms.
(2) Жрр `was` (which is regarded as the past form of ирчРрр), and (3) ёррРрр `to go` with its various forms.

Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying--

(1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.);
(2) the relation of the subject to the action (acting or acted upon)
(3) the way in which the action etc. is thought of the expressed by the speaker (as a fact, a question, a command, a possibility etc); (4) the time at which the action is thought of as taking place (present, past, future etc); and
(5) the Person, Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

ASPECT

(a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

(c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive.

(1) The Terminate Aspect "represents the act as a whole, as a fact". It is"a statement of fact", the action being"thought of as a whole, not as continuing".

"It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act)" (Curme).

(2) The Progressive Aspect"represents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended". «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on.

(d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb ЬиРрр `to continue `. .

VOICE

The forms of a Verb indicating the relations of the subject to the action etc. (denoted by the Verb) are called voices. Hindi has three voices active, passive and impersonal.

(a) "The active voice indicates that the subjects does something is, or is becoming something". Thus, in the active voice the grammatical subject («that about which something has been said`) is also the logical subject-- the `doer` ЬрЩр ёррГрр иш «Ram goes`, СрДрр т±рЬр `the leaf fell`, вр"Ёор ЧруЩррЬ иш `the boy is ill`, гри СрБяч±ру `she will read`, ЈзрРрч Щрф»рч ЧрфвррЪрр `he called me`, ЩршРрч ЬрЩр Ёорч Зч®рр `I saw Ram`,

ЬрЩр `Ram`, СрДрр «leaf`, вр"яЁор `Boy`, гри `she`, ЈзрРрч `he`, and ЩршРрч `I` are the grammatical subjects. The sentences say something about them. They are also the logical subject-- the doers of the act denoted by the Verbs. (For Ррч see *

Ррч is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form:

врАяЁчо Ррч Товр ®ррЪрр `the boy ate the fruit`;
ЬрЩр Ррч тЁоГррЧр СрБяу `Ram read the book`;
±ррЪррчь Ррч ЗхПр тЗЪрр `the cows gave milk`;
іррчАрчь Ррч ±ррАяу ®руьµру `the horses pulled the carriage`;
Шррэб Ррч Срлр твр®рр иш `the brother has written a letter`;
врАяЁоу Ррч ®ррРрр ЧрРррЪрр Жрр `the girl had cokked the food`;

But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form:

врАяЁор ЎрЪрр `the boy came`;
іррчАяр ЗршАяр `the horse ran`;
±ррЪрчь ±рЪруь `the cows went`.

Exceptions:-

A few Transitive Verbs like вррРрр `to bring,» ШрхврРрр `to forget`, ЧррчврРрр `to speak`, do not take the Subject with Ррч; while with зрЩр»рРрр `to understand` and ЧрЁоРрр `to chatter`, Ррч is optional. See :

врАяЁор тЁоГррЧр вррЪрр `the boy brought the book`;
ЧртиРрчь Товр вррЪруь `the sisters brought fruits`;
гри Чррчврр `he said`;
Щршь зрЩр»рр `I understood`;
ЩршьРрч ЎрСрЁоу ЧррГр Рриуь зрЩр»ру `I did not understand what you said`.)

(b) "The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon". Thus, in the Passive Voice, the grammatical subject is not the logical subject the doer, but the logical object-- the person or thing towards whom the action is directed.

дрлрф ЩррЬр ±рЪрр The enemy was killed`,
Щрф»рч ЧрфвррЪрр ±рЪрр I was called,
Ъри Ёоир ёррГрр иш тЁо It is said that. . . . .`,

дрлрф `enemy`, Щрф»рч «I` and Ъри `It` are the grammatical subjects: something has been said about them. They are, however, not the logical subjects-- the doers of killed called, and said. On the other hand, they are the logical objects : the actions of `killing`, «calling`, and `saying` are directed towards them. The logical subjects are not mentioned in the above sentences. They may be guessed from the context («the enemy was killed by us`), or, it may be necessary to mention them («it is said-- unnecessary to say, by whom), sometimes, however, the logical subject is mentioned-- always in the oblique form with зрч (* 98.a),

Щрф»рзрч µррЪр Рриуь Сру ёррГру «I cannot take tea` (literally tea cannot be taken by me)

Note: The passive voice is naturally restricted to transitive Verbs.

(c) The impersonal voice is restricted to Intransitive Verbs. It has either no subject at all. In which case the action denoted by the verbs serves as the subject; or, if there is a subject, it (the subject) is represented as able or unable to do something (i.e. the action denoted by the Verb) and has the oblique form with зрч (* 98-a)

The Impersonal Voice is always in the Neutral Construction. See:

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

ЈзрРрч ¶уьЁор «he sneezed`,
врЩяЁорчь Ррч дрчЬрчь Ёорч Зч®рр «the boys saw the lions`,
РрршЁоЬрРру Ёорч ЧрфвррЪрр ёрр¦±рр «the maid-servant will be called`,
µрвррч, зррчЪрр ёрр¦ «come, let us go to sleep`

µрвррч, ЎЧр зррчЪрр ёрр¦ «come let us now go to sleep` (Literally, come let it be slept`).

ГрфЩрзрч µрврр ёрр¦±рр ? «will you be able to walk ?, (Literally, «can (will) it be walked by you ?).

Щрф»рзрч Ј"р Рриуь ёррГрр «I am unable to get up`, (Literally, «it cannot be got up (arisen) by me`).

The first sentence has no subject. The action (sleeping) itself, in a way, is the subject (about which something has been said). In the other two sentences, the subjects ГрфЩрзрч and Щрф»рзрч are mentioned as `able to walk` and `unable to get up`, and have зрч.

The Impersonal Voice is, in fact, the Passive Voice used for Intransitive Verbs.

The Verb forms discussed in the following chapters are all Active. For Passive and impersonal forms.

MOOD

The form of the work indicating the manner of the action (whether it just happens, or is ordered to be done, or is dependent upon a condition etc.) are called moods.

Hindi has three moods--- Imperative, indicative and subjunctive.

(a) The imperative mood is a form of Verb expressive and action as a command, a request, a warning, prohibition etc. The subject is frequently omitted but can be easily guessed from both the context and the form of the work.

(Грх) ёрр `go` (thou) (ГрфЩр) грирь Рр ёррРрр don`t (you) ever go there, ЎрСр Ўрэб¦ `please come`.

(b) The imperative mood is form of Verb which represents the action as a fact, or makes a query about it.

гри ±рЪрр `he went` ©Ърр гри ёрр¦±рр ? `will he go` ? вр"яЁор ®рчвр Ьир иш `the boy is playing`.

(c) The subjunctive mood is a form of Verb, which represents the action as a desire, a hope, a possibility, a probability, a condition, a presumption etc.

It has four varieties :-

(i) Optative, expressing desire, demand, entreaty, requirement;

Јзрч µррти¦ тЁо гри ірЬ ёрр¦ «he ought to go home`
Щршь µрриГрр ихы тЁо гри Ўр¦ «I want that he should come`

(ii) Potential, expressing possibility;

зрьШргр иш, гри ЎрЪрр ирч «he may have come`
ирч зрЁоГрр тЁо Ёоиуь гржррб ифэб ирчь «it may have rained somewhere`

(iii) Contingent, expressing a contrary-to-fact condition:-
гри ЎрГрр ирч±рр «he must be come`

TENSE

The forms of a Verb indicating the time of the action are called tenses.

Hindi has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, habitual past and past perfect.

(a) The present tense represent the act as now going on, or as habitual, repeated or characteristics or it expresses general truth.

гри Ўр Ьир иш «he is coming` (act going on- progressive)
ЬрЩр зЁховр Щрчь СрБяГрр иш «Ram studies in a school` (habitual)
ГрфЩр Ёоирь ЬиГрч ирч «where do you leave ? (habitual)
±ррЪр ЗхПр ЗчГру ишь «Cows give milk` (Characteristic),
Зрч ЎршЬ Зрч µррЬ ирчГрч ишь «two plus two make four` (general truth)

Note: The Verb in the first sentence has progressive aspect. The rest of the Verbs have terminate the aspect. See :

(a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

(c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive.

(1) The Terminate Aspect "represents the act as a whole, as a fact". It is"a statement of fact", the action being"thought of as a whole, not as continuing".

"It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act)" (Curme).

(2) The Progressive Aspect"represents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended". «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on.

(d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb ЬиРрр `to continue `. These are explained in Chapter XIII * 262.

(b) The past tense represent some (particular) act as going on, or as done, in the past.

гри ёрр Ьир Жрр «he was going` (going on progressive),
гри ±рЪрр «he went`, (done - terminate),
ЩршьРрч тЁоГррЧр СрБяу «I read the book` (done - terminate)

Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. (See :

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

гри зрЗр зрГЪр ЧррчврГрр Жрр «He always spoke the truth`,
гри ЩриуРрч Щрчь ¦Ёо ЧррЬ ЧрЩЧрэб ёррГрр Жрр «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

(c) The future tense `represents and action or state as yet to take place or to come` into being`.

ЬрЩр Ёовр Ўр¦±рр «Ram will come to-morrow`,
Щршь Ў±рврч гржрб врьЗРр ёрр¤ы±рр «I will go to London next year`,

(d) The present perfect tense `represents a completed act the effect of which is still present`

ЩршьРрч Ъри тЁоГррЧр СрБяу иш «I have read this book`,
ЩрчЬр Шррэб ЎрЪрр иш «My brother has come`,

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

гри зрЗр зрГЪр ЧррчврГрр Жрр «He always spoke the truth`,
гри ЩриуРрч Щрчь ¦Ёо ЧррЬ ЧрЩЧрэб ёррГрр Жрр «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

Note:- Use of habitual past with reference to a particular act (done, or going on, in the past) is now archaic or colloquial, except with few verbs for which

(f) The past perfect tense represents a past action or state as completed act or before a certain past time (which may be expressed or implied):

тСр¶врч зррвр Щршь ЧрЩЧрэб ±рЪрр Жрр «I had gone to Bombay (last year)»,
гри Ўрёр зргрчЬч ЎрЪрр Жрр «He had come this morning`,

The tenses are treated in detailed in the following chapters:

CONSTRUCTION

In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions.

Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival& Nautral

(a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed):

вр"яЁчо Ррч тЁоГррЧр СрБяу «the boy read the book`,
ЁоЩрврр Ррч Товр ®рр¦ «kamala ate fruits`.
дрчЬ ЩррЬр ±рЪрр «the lion will be killed`,
Щрф»рзрч µррЪр Рриуь Сру ёррГру «I can`t take tea`,
Ъри Ёоир ёррГрр иш «It is said. . . . . `.

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

ЈзрРрч ¶уьЁор «he sneezed`,
врЩяЁорчь Ррч дрчЬрчь Ёорч Зч®рр «the boys saw the lions`,
РрршЁоЬрРру Ёорч ЧрфвррЪрр ёрр¦±рр «the maid-servant will be called`,
µрвррч, зррчЪрр ёрр¦ «come, let us go to sleep`

Note:- (I) The active has all the three constructions, the Passive has only the Objectival and the Neutral, while the Impersonal has only the Neutral:

Active Щршь ёррГрр ихы, Щрш ±рЪрр (Subjectival)
ЩршьРрч вр"яЁоу Зч®ру (Objectival)
Passive ЩршьРрч РршоЁоЬ Ёорч ЧрфвррЪрр (Neutral)
ЬргрВр ЩррЬр ±рЪрр (Objectival)
Impersonal врЩяЁчо Ёорч ЧрфвррЪрр ±рЪрр (Neutral)
Щрф»рзрч ЈШр Рриуь ёррГрр (Neutral)

(ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from (See Chapter XI).

175. The various"forms" discussed above--Aspect, Voice, Mood, Tense and Construction--are not always independent of each other, or distinctly and individually recognizable in each Verb. A single Verb often represents several"Forms". Thus, a Verb like µрврГрр иш."he goes" has only two distinctive features,--Грр and иш. These represent mainly the Tense (Present), and the construction (Subjectivel: Masculine, Singular, Third Person). The Voice (Active), Aspect (Terminate) and Mood (Indicative) are indicated by the absence of the distinctive features of the other"Forms" (Passive or Impersonal Voices, Progressive Aspect, Imperative and subjunctive Mood). A Verb like (Ъри) зрфРрр ёрр Ьир иш has several distinctive features: ёрр indicates Passive: Ьир indicates progressive Aspect, as well as objectival construction (Masculine, Singular, Third Person, agreeing with the object Ъри); and Ьир иш together indicate the Present Indicative Tense.

(b) A Verb restricted by all the above"Forms" is called Finite. There are besides the `Finite Verb`, other Verbs which are restricted one or two of the"Forms". Such for example, are the Infinitive (like µрврРрр, ёррРрр : Chapter X) and the Participles (like µрврГрр, µрврр : Chapter XI).

(c) A Root is the basic form of a Verb, which is modified into the various forms. µрвр is the root of µрврГрр иш, µрврр, µрврч±рр, µрврч etc.

(d) Roots are also capable of certain other modifications like Зч®рРрр `to see`, тЗ®ррРрр «to show` and Зу®рРрр"to be seen".

(a) Of the three Voices referred to in 171, the Active (in its three constructions) is by far the most important. The forms (Imperative, Indicative and Subjunctive) discussed in this and the following chapters are all Active. The Passive and the Impersonal forms will be treated in Chapter XIV.

As for the Aspect (170) all the forms given in these chapters are to be taken as Terminate, unless otherwise stated. Aspects will be treated along with Compound Verbs (Chapter XIII). Of the three moods referred to in 172, the Imperative has the simplest formation. This will, therefore, be discussed first.

The Imperative Mood, as already stated (178), denotes command, request, warning, prohibition, entreaty etc. By its very nature, the Imperative cannot refer to the past: command or request is impossible with regared to a past action. The Imperative, therefore, is restricted to the Present and the Future Tenses.

(In fact, the Imperative cannot refer even to the present, since what the speaker wants done can take place only after he has spoken: it is neither going on, nor completed at the moment of speaking. Some Imperative forms, however, refer specifically to future - relatively distant future. It is mainly for distinguishing these forms from the ordinary forms that the Imperative is said to have a present form as well).

Since the Imperative denotes command, request etc., its proper domain is the second person. Indirect command request etc. made to a third person may be expressed by the subjunctive (optative) forms. See :-

(a) Ўр¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for Ўр `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µрвр and ирч, the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

The Imperative forms of the present are made as follows:- In the second person singular, the bare root (with stress accent) is used:-

(Грх) СрБя `read (thou)»
(Грх) Ўр `come (thou)»
(Грх) ёрр `go (thou)» !

Note: These forms can be used only for God, servants, young children, in affection for mother, sister etc. or for expressing anger. See :Грх is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in anger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather).

In the second person plural, - Ўрч is appended to the root:-

(ГрфЩр) СрБярч `read (you)»,
(ГрфЩр) ЎрЎрч `come (thou)»!
(ГрфЩр) ёррЎрч `go (thou)»

Note: The root ЗчРрр `to give` makes Зрч (not ЗчЎрч). and врчРрр `to take` makes вррч (not врчЎрч).

(ii) The alternative forms Ўргррч, ёрргррч (instead of ЎрЎрч, ёррЎрч) etc., occasionally met with, should be discarded.

(iii) The usage of second person plural form is similar to that of the second person plural pronoun ГрфЩр.

With the second person honorific pronoun ЎрСр See. ЎрСр is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.)- э¦ is appended to the root.

(ЎрСр) СртБя¦ `please read`,
(ЎрСр) Ўрэ¦ `please come`,
(ЎрСр) ёррэ¦ `please go`.

Note: (i) The following roots have exceptional forms in the honorific:

ЁоЬРрр `to do` makes Ёоутёр¦ (besides ЁотЬ¦),
врчРрр `to take` makes врутёр¦,
ЗчРрр `to give` makes Зутёр¦,
СруРрр `to drink` makes Срутёр¦ |

But ихтёр¦ form ирчРрр `to be` is archaic and should be discarded. The correct form is ирчэ¦ which is rarely used.

Ўрэ¦, ёррэ¦ etc. are also written ЎрэЪрч, ёррэЪрч etc. but the former are preferable. The honorific forms are used in the same way as the honorific Pronoun. See ЎрСр is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.)

(a) The Future forms of the Imperative, both Singular and Plural, are identical with the Infinitive forms of roots - µрврРрр, ЎрРрр, ёррРрр, СрБяРрр etc.

Грх гриры Рр ёррРрр `thou should not go there`,
ГрфЩр дррЩр Ёорч Рр ЎрРрр `you should not come in the evening`,
ГрфЩр Ёорвр ЩрчЬч зррЖр µрврРрр `you should come with me to-morrow`.

These forms usually imply advice or mild command. They are not used with the honorific pronoun, which has the optative form instead. See With the honorific pronoun, the Optatives may denote polite request or suggestion:

ЎрСр грирь Рр ёрр¦ы `you had better not go there` (180-a).

The polite future Imperative is made by adding-ga to the honorfic forms:-

ЎрСр Ёовр Ўрэ¦±рр `kindly come to-morrow`,
ЎрСр гриры Рр ёррэ¦±рр `you had better not go there`,
ЎрСр Щрф»рч Срлр Шрчтёр¦±рр `you will kindly send me a letter`.

These forms are identical with, and have been taken over from the polite future forms. .

(a) An exceptionl (`Exclamatory`) Imperative, denoting emergency, danger, warning etc. is formed by adding - эЪррч to the root:-

ЗрштАяЪррч ! Ўр±р вр±ру ! `run (come quick)! Fire has broken out!,
µртврЪррч ! ШрчтАяЪрр ЎрЪрр ! `come quick ! A wolf is coming`.

These forms are used mainly in calling for help and are addressed to all persons within hearing. Their use as mere Future Imperatives is now archaic or dialectic.

(b) The - Ррр Imperatives may similarly be used to denote warning, emergency or informal request:-

Јзрч Рр ¶хРрр ! `don`t touch it! (it is hot, etc.)»,
СрЁоАяРрр ! `catch hold! (of the thif etc.)»,
ЧрµрРрр ! `get aside! (there`s a car behind you etc.)»
гри Срчьтзрвр вррРрр !`will you just get that pencil?` (informal request).

(a) The Present Imperative forms can, of course, be also used with reference to Future also:-

ГрфЩр Ёовр гриры ёррЎрч `You go there to-morrow`.
ЎрСр Ззр тЗРр ЧррЗ Ўрэ¦ `please come after ten days.`

(b) The so-called `Imperative` forms for the first and third persons are really subjunctive (optative). See :-

(a) Ўр¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for Ўр `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µрвр and ирч, the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

The Present Imperative is sometimes called the `Direct Imperative` and the Future Imperative the `Indirect Imperative.` The negative (prohibitive) forms of the Imperative are made by placing a ЩрГр or Рр immediately before the Verb. ЩрГр is more emphatic and less polite.

ГрфЩр Рр ёррЎрч, ЎрСр Рр ёррэ¦, Грх ЩрГр ёрр

Note:- (i) The Active Imperative does not have the Objectival or the Neutral construction. All the forms treated above are Active And have the Subjectival construction, the Verbs agreeing with the Subjects in Number and Person. The Imperative forms are not affected by Gender.

(ii) For Passive and Impersonal forms,

For Progressive forms, see :

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

The Indicative forms of a Verb either represent the action etc. as a fact or make a query about it. These forms can be of any of the six Tenses, and of any Number, Person and Gender. In the Active Voice (which alone is being discussed here), they can have any of the three `construction`.

The Indicative Present is formed with the help of the Present Participl and the present forms of the Substantive Verb иш (ирч) :

гри µрврГрр иш `he moves`.

The Present Participal is an Adjective derived from a Verb, and is formed by appending Грр to the bare root. Thus, the Present Participle of µрвр `move` is µрврГрр `moving`, of Ўр `come`, it is ЎрГрр `coming`, of ёрр `go`, ёррГрр `going` etc.

Being an Adjective ending in -Ўр , the Present Perticiple is subject to the same modifications due to Number and Gender as an ordinary Ўр-Adjecive (127). µрврГрр etc. are Masculine Singlar in form and may, therefore, be used if the subject is Masc. and Sing. With a Feminine subject (singular or plural) µрврГрр etc. change to µрврГру etc.; and with a Masc. plural subject to µрврГрч (also oblique) etc.

The Presen: forms of the Substantive Verb are as follows:-

First Person -singular ихы plural ишь
Second Person" ишь " ирч
Third Person " ишь " ишь

These are not affected by Gender.

188. Thus, the present Indicative forms of the root µрвр are as follows:-

with a Masculine subject:-

singular plural

First Person Щршь µрврГрр ихь `I move`, иЩр µрврГрч иш `we move`.
Second Person Грх µрврГрр ишь `thou movest`, ГрфЩр µрврГрч ирч `you move`.
Third Person гри µрврГрр ишь `he (or it) moves`, грч µрврГрч ишь `they move`.

With a Feminine subject:-

singular Plural

1st person Щршь µрврГру ихы иЩр µрврГру ишь
2nd " Грх µрврГру ишь ГрфЩр µрврГру ирч
3rd " гри µрврГру ишь грч µрврГру ишь

Note: (i) AN oun-subject is always regarded as being in the Third Person.

Thes, ЬрЩр ёррГрр иш `Ram goes`, зруГрр ёррГру иш `Sita goes`, врАяЁчо ЎрГрч ишь `the boys come`, врАятЁоЪррь ёррГру ишь `the girls come`.

(ii) The honorific ЎрСр `you` is considered to be a Third Person plural Pronoun: ЎрСр ёррГрч ишь `you go` (Fem. ЎрСр ёррГру ишь).

The above forms have the Subjectival construction, sine the Verb agrees in Number, Person and Gender with the logical subject (`the doer`). In the Active Voice, the Present Indicative does not have the Objectival or the Neutral construction : the Verb must here always agree with the logical subject only. See:- (ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from

(a) As per the Aspect, the above forms are Terminate: they represent the act (`moving` etc.) as a whole, a fact,- not as progressing. The progressive aspect (`he is going`) is expressed with the help of the Auxiliary Ьир, Ьич,Ьиу compounded with the main root. Thus:-

гри ёрр Ьир иш `he is going`,
гри µрвр Ьиу иш `she is moving`,
гри Ўр Ьич иш `they are coming`.

The negative forms are made with the help of the particle Рриуь placed immediately before the Verb. But in the negative sentence иш, ишь, etc.

are, as a rule, omitted:
гри Рриуь ёррГрр `he does not go`,

ЬрЩр зЁховр Щрчь Рриуь СрБяГрр, ірЬ СрЬ СрБяГрр иш `Ram does not study in a school, he studies at home. `

In asking questions, ©Ърр is generally added to the sentence usually in the beginning, but may be omitted, if the interrogation is evident from the context or form the intonation. See:- Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions.

Hind has only two Interrogative Pronouns- Ёорчэб and ©Ърр, the former usually referring tp `person` and the latter to `things` either in singular or in plural:

гри ЁоршРр иш ? `who is he?`;
Ъри ©Ърр иш ? `what is this ?`;
грч ЁоршРр ишь ? `who are they ?`;
Ърч ©Ърр ишь ? `what are these ?`

©Ърр is really a neuter form - a rare oceeurremce in Hindi.

©Ърр (frequently expressed but occasionally implied) is used for denoting the interrogative nature of a sentence (except when another interrogativ word is present (192 Note):

©Ърр гри ЎрЪрр иш ? `has he come?`;
(©Ърр) ЬрЩр зррч ±рЪрр ? `has Ram gone to sleep?.

For further uses of ©Ърр (as a Compound Pronoun),©Ърр-©Ърр `which things?`, `what things?
Шррэб ЧррєррЬ зрч ©Ърр-©Ърр врр¦ ишь ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. ©Ърр-зрч-©Ърр denotes unexpected and abruptchange of situation, usually for the worse. ©Ърр.....©Ърр is adverbial and denotes, equally, without difference or distinction. It has a conjunctive force.
©Ърр ГрфЩр, ©Ърр гри, ЗрчРррчь Щрх®рб ишь `you and he are both (equally) fools`.
©Ърр тРрПрбРр, ©Ърр ПрРру, зрШру ЩрЬчь±рч `whether rich or poor, all will pass away`.
ЁоршРр and ©Ърр may be used as a Relative Pronoun:
гри ЁоршРр иш, Ёорчэб Рриуь ёррРрГрр `nobody knows who he is.`
СрГрр вр±ррЎрч тЁо Ёовр ЈзрРрч ©Ърр тЁоЪрр `find out what he did yesterday.`
©Ърр is used as an Exclamatory Adjective for denoting the surprising or striking nature of some quality etc:
©Ърр (иу) зрфРЗЬ ИдЪр иш ! `what a lovely scene!`
©Ърр Срр±рвр ЎрЗЩру иш ! `what an idiotic person !`
Ъри ©Ърр ЧрчгрЁхоТоу иш ! `what foolishness is this!`

©Ърр is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation:
гри ЎрЗЩру ©Ърр иш, Ьркрзр иш `call him a man? he is a demon`;
Чрµµрр ©Ърр иш, ±рфвррЧр Ёор Тховр иш `it`s not a child, it`s a rose.`
гри ЗршАяГрр ©Ърр иш, ЈАяГрр иш `dose he run? he flies!`
ГрфЩр Щрф«оЗЩрч Щрчь ©Ърр ёруГррч±рч `you will win the case? impossible!
Another Adverbial use of ©Ърр is as a declarative, rhetorical in terrogative:
Ъри ©Ърр СрАяу иш ГрфЩирЬу тЁоГррЧр! `here lies your book! can`t you see?
Щршь Ъри ©Ърр Чршїр ихь `am I not sitting here (don`t you see, I am sitting here)?`
The pair ©Ърр ....©Ърр ©Ърр-©Ърр `which things?`, `what things?`:
Шррэб ЧррєррЬ зрч ©Ърр-©Ърр врр¦ ишь ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. is also adverbial (conjunctive) in sense.

©Ърр гри зЁховр ёррГрр иш? `does he go to the school?
©Ърр зруГрр ірЬ СрЬ СрБяГру иш? `does Sita study at home?

Note:- But if the sentence contains an Interrogative Pronoun (in any capacity) or an Interrogative Pronominal Adjective or Adverb, the additional ©Ърр is omitted:

Ърирь ЁоршРр ЬиГрр иш ? `who lives here ? (ЁоршРр Subject)»,
гри ©Ърр СрБяГрр иш ? `what does he study ? (©Ърр Object)»,
гри тЁоГрРрр ЮСрЪрр µрриГрр иш ? `how much money does he want ?` (ьтЁоГрРрр Pronominal Adjective)»,
гри Ёоирь ЬиГру иш ? `where does she live ? (Ёоирь Pronominal Adverb)».

In the rest of the Tenses and Moods, ©Ърр is used in the same manner.

The Terminate or - Грр Present states a general or a particular fact:-

ЬрЩр зргрчЬч зЁховр ёррГрр иш `Ram goes to school in the morning (every day)».
µрвррч, Щррь ЧрфвррГру иш `come on, mother calls (wants) you`.

The first sentence states a general fact; the second refers, obviously, to a particular occasion. However, it may not always be obvious whether a - Грр from is referring to general or to a particular fact. In such cases, it becomes necessary to use the Ьир form which is more exolicit in its reference to a particular occasion. A sentence like гри »рхї ЧррчврГрр иш `he tells a lie` may mean either `he lies habitually`, or he is (on theis occasion) telling a lie`. If, therefore, the reference is to a particular occasion, гри »рхї Чррчвр Ьир иш would be preferable. For denoting a continued action, the Ьир form is almost exclusively used:-

врАяЁчо ®рч Ьич ишь `the boys are playing `.
грч ёрр Ьич ишь `they are going`, etc.

The Indicative Past is identical in form with the Past Participle of a Verb which, being an Adjective, is affected (like the Present Participle: 186) by the Number and Gender of the Subject (or of the Object, See below

(a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with Ррч. (Ррч is Agentive).

Note: (i) It will be observed that СрБяу in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object тЁоГррЧр is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) ЬрЩр, which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®ррЪрр, ГррчАяч and Сру in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ®ррРрр (Masc, Sg.) Товр (Masc. Pl), and µррЪр (Fem. Sg.).

These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See:- (a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction.

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

ЩршьРрч ЬрЩр Ёорч Зрч тЁоГррЧрчь Зу `I gave two books to Ram`.

(a) The Past Participle is formed by appending Ўр to the root:

(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and эб shorten their vowels before the -Ўр and, in the case of-эб roots, a-Ър is inserted between the root and the-Ўр. Thus-

(c) -Ър is similarly inserted in case of the roots ending in - Ўр -¦ or - Ўрч. Thus -

(d) The following are exceptional forms:-

196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their -Ўр to эб in the Feminine Singular, to - эб in the Feminine Plural, and to - ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-

and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µрвр are:-

With a Masculine Subject:-

Singular Plural

With a Feminine Subject:-

Note: (i) The regular and preferable Feminine forms of ±рЪрр, ЎрЪрр etc. are ±рЪру, Ўрэб, ±рЪруь, ЎрЪруь. They are frequently written as ±рэб, Ўрэб. ±рэбь Ўрэб чetc. Similarly, the regular Masc. Plurals of these forms ±рЪрч and ЎрЪрч are also written as ±р¦ and Ўр¦, ифЎр makes ифэб, ифэбь and иф¦ (also written as ифЪрч). ифгрч is now sub-standard.

(ii) Past Participles which edn in - эЪрр in the Masc. Sg., form their Fem. by changing this эЪрр to - эб (sg.) or - эбь (Pl.). Thus, тврЪрр makes вру, вруь (not тврЪру, тврЪруь as expected), тЗЪрр makes Зу, Зуь; тЁоЪрр makes Ёоу, Ёоуь, тСрЪрр makes Сру, Сруь etc.

It is to be noted that a Past Participle, when used as a Verb of the Past, modifies its signification accordingly. ±рЪрр as a Past Participle (Adjective) means `gone` but as a Verb `he went`.

(a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with Ррч. See :- Ррч is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form:

врАяЁчо Ррч Товр ®ррЪрр `the boy ate the fruit`;
ЬрЩр Ррч тЁоГррЧр СрБяу `Ram read the book`;
±ррЪррчь Ррч ЗхПр тЗЪрр `the cows gave milk`;
іррчАрчь Ррч ±ррАяу ®руьµру `the horses pulled the carriage`;
Шррэб Ррч Срлр твр®рр иш `the brother has written a letter`;
врАяЁоу Ррч ®ррРрр ЧрРррЪрр Жрр `the girl had cokked the food`;

But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form:

врАяЁор ЎрЪрр `the boy came`;
іррчАяр ЗршАяр `the horse ran`;
±ррЪрчь ±рЪруь `the cows went`.

Exceptions:-

A few Transitive Verbs like вррРрр `to bring,» ШрхврРрр `to forget`, ЧррчврРрр `to speak`, do not take the Subject with Ррч; while with зрЩр»рРрр `to understand` and ЧрЁоРрр `to chatter`, Ррч is optional. See :-

врАяЁор тЁоГррЧр вррЪрр `the boy brought the book`;
ЧртиРрчь Товр вррЪруь `the sisters brought fruits`;
гри Чррчврр `he said`;
Щршь зрЩр»рр `I understood`;
ЩршьРрч ЎрСрЁоу ЧррГр Рриуь зрЩр»ру `I did not understand what you said`.

Note: (i) It will be observed that СрБяу in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object тЁоГррЧр is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) ЬрЩр, which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®ррЪрр, ГррчАяч and Сру in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ®ррРрр (Masc, Sg.) Товр (Masc. Pl), and µррЪр (Fem. Sg.).

These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See: In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction.

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

ЩршьРрч ЬрЩр Ёорч Зрч тЁоГррЧрчь Зу `I gave two books to Ram`.

There are a few exceptione to the above rule.

The roots врр `bring`, Шрхвр `forget`, зрЩр»р `understand, realize`, ЧрЁо `chatter, talk idly`, Чррчвр `speak`, врАя `fight`, quarrel`, АЬ `fear`, тЩрвр `meet` have the subjectival construction in the past inspite of being Transitive. However,

врр `bring` is, in fact, a compound Verb made of врч `take` + Ўр `come`; and since Ўр is Intransitive, it affects the construction of врр. A sentence like гри тЁоГррЧр вррЪрр is to be constuured as гри тЁоГррЧр врч (ЁоЬ) ЎрЪрр `he came having taken the book`. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
Щршь Ррч µррЪр Сру `I took tea` (objectival construction),
ЩршьРрч µррЪр Сру вру `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because вру is trans.) But, Щршь µррЪр Сру µрфЁор `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µрфЁор is intrans.).Main Verb: Bare - Root (Absolutive Form)

In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without ЁоЬ (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:- (a).

Шрхвр `forget` is generally used as Compound Verb together with ёрр `go` which is Intransitive and, therefore, helps in retaining the subjectival construction. ЬрЩр Ъри ЧррГр Шрхвр ±рЪрр `Ram forgot this thing` is much more frequent than ЬрЩр Ъри ЧррГр Шрхврр. ЬрЩр Шрхврр or Щршь Шрхврр would, in fact, mean `Ram erred or I erred`, where Шрхврр is Intransitive. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
Щршь Ррч µррЪр Сру `I took tea` (objectival construction),
ЩршьРрч µррЪр Сру вру `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because вру is trans.) But, Щршь µррЪр Сру µрфЁор `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µрфЁор is intrans.).

ЧрЁо and Чррчвр are used both as Transitive and as Intransitive. In гри ЧрЁор `he chattered`, ЧрЁо is Intransitive, and in ЈзрРрч ЧрифГр Ёфо¶ ЧрЁор `he talked a lot of non-sense`, it is Transitive. In гри Чррчврр `he spoke`, Чррчвр is Intransitive, and in ЈзрРрч »руї Чррчврр `he spoke lie`, it is Transitive. However, »рхї Чррчврр is also current.

зрЩр»р has both the construction: Щршь зрЩр»рр, ЩршьРрч зрЩр»рр `I thought or understood`.

АЬ, врАя and тЩрвр are treated as Intransitive Verbs in Hindi. The `objects` of these Verbs attach зрч which signifies `from` or `with`:

врАя, however, is Transitive with a cognate object (165-c) ЈзрРрч Ёоэб врАярэЪррь врАяуь `he fought several battles`. Omission of Ррч in the above Verbs may partly be due to dialectic influence.

A Transitive Verb, whose object takes the case-sign Ёорч, has Neutral construction in the past indicative:

Exceptions:- Verbs requaring two objects never have the Neutral construction:

The Intransitive Verb ¶уьЁо `sneeze` and ®ррызр `cough` have the Neutral construction in the Past Indicative : ЁоЩрврр Ррч ¶уьЁор `Kamla sneezed`. ЩршьРрч ®ррызрр `I coughed`. (Щршь ®ррызрр is also correct).

(a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used. See:-

гри ёрр Ьир Жрр «he was going` (going on progressive),
гри ±рЪрр «he went`, (done - terminate),
ЩршьРрч тЁоГррЧр СрБяу «I read the book` (done - terminate)

Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. See :-

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

гри зрЗр зрГЪр ЧррчврГрр Жрр «He always spoke the truth`,
гри ЩриуРрч Щрчь ¦Ёо ЧррЬ ЧрЩЧрэб ёррГрр Жрр «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, please see:-

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Грр by Ьир:

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual See:-

The forms ёрр Ьир Жрр etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ёррГрр Жрр form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ёрр Ьир Жрр is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±рЪрр

The Indicative Future is formed as follows:-

The root assumes a modified form by attaching - ¦ in the Second and Third person Singular, -¤ы in the First person Singular, - ¦ы in the First and Third person Plural, and Ўрч in the Second person Plural.

Thus µрвр is modified to -

Singular Plural

These are really Subjective (Optative) forms. See:- (a) Ўр¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for Ўр `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µрвр and ирч, the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

To the root thus modified is appended a -

The Future Indicative forms of the root µрвр, thus, would be-

With a Masculine subject -

Singular Plural

(b) With a Feminine subject -

Singular Plural

Note:- With the honorific pronoun ЎрСр, Third Person Plural forms are used -

(a) Roots ending in - эб or - ¤ shorten these vowels before attaching - ¦, - ¦ы, - ¤ы and - Ўрч [50 - (a) and (b)]. Thus:-

(b) The roots Зч `give` and врч `take` drop their vowel (-¦) before attaching - ¦, - ¦ы, - ¤ы and - Ўрч.

(c)The root ирч `be` does not attach - ¦ or - ¦ы. But ¤ы (First person Sg.) and - Ўрч (Second Person Pl.) are attached as usual. In the First and Third person Plural, ирч is nasalized. The forms are ирч±рр (II and III Sg.), ирчь±рч (I and III Pl.) ирч¤ы±рр (I Sg.) and ирчЎрч±рч (II Pl.)

(d) It is common to write ЎрЪр±рр, ёррЪр±рр or Ўргрч±рр, ёрргрч±рр for Ўр¦±рр, ёрр¦±рр (he will come, he wil go); тСрЪрч±рр, тёрЪрч±рр etc., for тСр¦±рр, тёр¦±рр etc.; ЎрЪры±рч, ёрргрчь±рч for Ўр¦ы±р| ёрр¦ы±рч etc; тСрЪры±рч, тёрЪры±рч for тСр¦ы±рч, тёр¦ы±рч etc. But the regular, and therefore preferable, forms are those with-¦ and-¦ы (Ўр¦±рр, Ўр¦ы±рч etc.). ирчгрч±рр, (for ирч±рр), ирчгрчь±рч (for ирчь±рч), ихь±рр (for ирч¤ы±рр) and ирч±рч (for ирчЎрч±рч) are dialectical or colloquial and should be discarded.

(e) In Fem. Plural, -±ру should never be nasalized. ёрр¦ы±ру is the correct form, not ёрр¦ы±руь.

(f) With the honorific Pronoun ЎрСр, Third Person plural forms are used ЎрСр ёрр¦ы±рч (Masc.) ЎрСр ёрр¦ы±ру (Fem.). An extra-polite form is obta ned by appending - ±рр to the honorific forms of the Imperative, ёррэ¦ etc. (180-b). Thus ЎрСр ёррэ¦±рр, µртвр¦±рр etc. This form is used for boththe genders.

In the Active Voice, the Indicative Future has onlythe subjectival construction: the Verb always agrees with the subject in Number, Gender and Person.

For Passive and Impersonal forms of Future,

For Progressive Future, see:- (a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

The Present Perfect represents a completed act, the effect of which is still present. It is, in fact, a tense of the past; but it brings a past act into relation with the present. The person or the thing referred to by the Verb in the Present Perfect ``must be living or still existing and thus related tothe present``. The Present Perfect ``can refer to the remote past if the present is not excluded by the statement``. ``It distinguishes sharply between present and past`` and can never be used for anything wholly past.

See:- The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say врАяЁор ЎрЪрр иш `the boy has come` only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say врАяЁор Ёовр ЎрЪрр иш ЎршЬ Ўрёр µрврр ±рЪрр `the boy ``has come`` yesterday and went to-day` because the boy`s coming can no longer be related to the present: he is gone. Similarly, we can say ШррЬГр Щрчь ЎдррчЁо ёршзрч ЩрирРр Ьрёрр иф¦ ишь `there have been great kings like Ashok in India` because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say µрРН±рфСГр Ррч СррѕтврСрфлр Ёорч ЬрёрПррРру ЧрРррЪрр иш `Chandragupta ``has made`` Pataliputra his capital`, because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists.

It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past` (ЎрзрРРр ШрхГр) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action.

The Present Perfect is made by combining the past participle of the root with the present forms of the root иш-ирч `be` as given in 187. (The past participle forms are given in 195). As in the Present Indicative (188), the past participle is affected by Number and Gender, while the иш - ирч forms are affected by Person and Number. The Present Perfect forms of the root µрвр, thus, are:- with a Masculine subject --

Singular Plural

with a Feminine subject-

Singular Plural

The above forms have subjectival construction: the root µрвр is Intransitive. With a Transitive Verb, however, as in the case of the simple past (98), the objectival construction is the rule. The past participle is then made to agree with the object in Number and Gender while the иш forms agree with the Person and Number of the object. The subject is, of course, placed in the oblique case with Ррч (96).

Note:- (i) It will be observed that the past participles СрБяу, ®ррЪрр, твр®рч and ГррчАяу agree, as regards Gender and Number, with the objects

and respectively. The forms иш and ишь agree with the same objects in Number and Person (third throughout).

(ii)With a Pronoun as the object or object not expressed, the objectival construction is not permissible, since the Pronouns must have a Ёорч (or ¦) form and, therefore, the Verb must be in the neutral construction (200).

As in the case of Simple Past (200), whenever the object has a Ёорч, the Present Perfect Verb must be in the neutral construction (for Ёорч, see :- The Object of a Verb in the neutral Construction (174 (c)];

ЬрЩр Ррч врАяЁчо Ёорч Зч®рр `Ram saw the boy`,
Шррэб Ррч ЧртиРр Ёорч ЧрфвррЪрр `the brother called the sister`;
СрГЖрЬрчь Ёорч ТчьоЁо тЗЪрр ±рЪрр `the stones were thrown away`;
эРр ЩрЁорРррчь Ёорч т±рЬр тЗЪрр ёрр¦ `let these houses be demolished`)

Exception: Verbs having two objects are never put in the neutral
construction

ЩршьРрч Јзрч Зрч тЁоГррЧрчь Зу ишь `I have given him two books`.

(Objectival Construction).

For Progressive forms, See:- (a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

263. Of the remaining Moods and Tenses,

the Imperative has no progressive form; the Indicative Past has no progressive form - except the rare
conditional ЎрГрр ифЎр [262-d and 322-c]; the Indicative Future progressive is identical with the presumptive progressive ёрр Ьир ирч±рр (but, obviously, for fear of confusion,
it is seldom used); the Present Perfect has no progressive form; the Past Perfect -do- the Optative -do- the Past Potential -do- the Past Presumptive -do- the Past Contingent -do- the Past Participle -do- the Present Participle, when used as an Adjective, makes itsprogressive either with ифЎр (ёррГрр ифЎр) or, less commonly with Ьир (ёрр Ьир) the Infinitive has no progressive form; the Progressive forms of compound Verbs are made by putting the Subsidiary Verbs in the progressive, where possible; the Progressive forms of Passive are similarly made by putting ёррРрр in the progressive, where possible.

The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It does not usually refer to a particular act of the past, nor to an act as going on in the past. It is not correct to call this tense ``Past Imperfect`` or ``Progressive Past``, as has been done by almost all the grammarians. Modern Hindi usage does not warrant this nomenclature. See below

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Грр by Ьир:

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual It differs from the Simple Past (202) in as much as the latter refers to a particular act of the past, whereas the Habitual Past refers to a general fact:

The Verbs of the two senternces are not inter-changeable.

The Habitual Past is formed by combining

with the present participle forms of the Verb (Which, of course, are affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, see

196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their -Ўр to эб in the Feminine Singular, to - эб in the Feminine Plural, and to - ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-

and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µрвр are:-

With a Masculine Subject:-

Singular Plural

With a Feminine Subject:-

) The Habitual Passt forms are not affected by Person.

The forms of the root ёрр `go` will, thus, be:- with a Masculine Subject :

Singular Plural

with a Feminine Subject :-

Singular Plural

A special form of the Habitual Past is obtained by omitting the auxiliaries Жрр, Жрч, Жру, Жруь. It is used almost exclusively in narrating a repeated act of the past.

иЩр вррч±р зрЧрчЬч иу грирь ёррГрч Ърр ёррЪрр ЁоЬГрч ЎршЬ дррЩр Ёорч врршѕГрч Ърр врршѕр ЁоЬГрч

`we would (we used to) go there every morning and return in the evening.` This form may be called `Frequentative` or `Repetitive` Past.

Note:- In the Fem. Pl. of the Frequentative Past, the present participle has a - Груь instead of the usual - Гру:

грч ёррГруь `they (Fem,) would go`.

The `Frequentative` forms are not tobe confused with the contingent forms (233) with which they are apparently identical.

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Грр by Ьир:

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual. See

The forms ёрр Ьир Жрр etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ёррГрр Жрр form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ёрр Ьир Жрр is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±рЪрр

(a) The Past Habitual (including the ``Frequentative``) is restricted to the present (191-92) with the help of Рриуь and ©Ърр. The Auxiliaries Жру, Жрч, Жруь however, are not omitted:

The Past Perfect represents ``a past action or state as completed at or before a certain past time``. It is not ``remote past``, as is usually supposed.

It is formed by combining Жрр, Жру, Жруь with the past participle forms (195) of the main Verb:

There is no modificatin due to Peson. The honorific form has Third Person Plural:

ЎрСр ±р¦ Жрч (±рэб Жруь).

(a) As in the case of the Simple Past (198), the Transitive Verbs have the objectival construction in the Past Perfect; the Verb agrees with the object in Gender and Number, and the subject is placed in the oblique form with Ррч:

(b) The above rule is subject to the same exceptions as the rule regarding the Simple Past (199):

(c) In the case of the Verbs having two objects, the Verb agrees with the primary object [ see

Every Primary (Animate or Inanimate) Object of a verb having two Objects [See:

(c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books` therefore, is the ``Dorect``, or the ``primary`` Object, and him is the ``Indirect`` or the ``Secondary`` Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?``, and the Secondary Object answers `Whom?`).

] .

ЩршРрч ЬрЩр Ёорч іррчАяр тЗЪрр `I gave Ram a horse`;
Щррщ Щрф»рч Зрч Товр Зчь±ру `mother will give me two fruits`;
Шр±ргррРр Јзрч ¦Ёо врАяЁор Зч `may God grant him a son!`;
гри Щрф»р зрч ¦Ёо ЭСрЪрр Щрры±рГрр иш `he asks me for a rupee`.

and See

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

ЩршьРрч ЬрЩр Ёорч Зрч тЁоГррЧрчь Зу `I gave two books to Ram`.)

(a) But a Transitive Verb has the neutral construction if its object takes the case-sign- Ёорч (cf. 200).

Exceptionally, a few Intransitive Verbs also (201) have the neutral construction:

Note:- Verbs taking two objects never have the neutral construction.

The Past Perfect, like the simple past (202) refers to a particular act. The act. must have been completed at a past time: it is immaterial whether it was completed a moment ago or centuries ago. We can say ЬрЩр ЎШру Ърирь ЎрЪрр Жрр `Ram had just now come here`, as well as,

For Progressive forms, see

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

and for Passive and Impersonal Voice,

The various terminate forms of the Indicative Mood (in the active voice), discussed in Chapters III-VIII may be summarized as
follows:-

Forms made with the Present Participle:-

Forms made with the Past Participle:-

Forms made with - ±рр (attached to the Subjunctive forms):-

The following points may be noted:-

Note - Грр (present participle) and - Ўр (past participle) as well as - ±рр forms are affected by Gender and Number:-

But Fem. Pl is - Груь and эб, if there is no auxiliary: µрврГру (Negative Present or Frequentative Past), µрвруь (Simple Past).
Objectival construction is possible only with the past participle forms (223-b) of Transitive Vrbs:-

Neutral construction is possible only with the past participle forms of a Transitive Verb, when the object is in the oblique form:-

The Subjunctive mood, as already stated (172-c), is a form of Verb, which represents the action not as a reality, but as a wish, hope, command requirement, possibility, probability, presumption, condition, etc. It represents in short ``the action or state as a conception of the mond rather than a reality`` (Cwme).

(a) In Hindi, the Subjunctive has eight different forms, that may be divided into three groups representing three tenses, present, past and future. But it must be remembered that the tenses of this mood do not define the time (of the occurrence of an action) as clearly as do the tenses of the Indicative.

In accordance with their main signfications, the eight forms may be divided into four groups - (1) those expressing (mainly) wish, desire, requirement, (2) those expressing possibility, (3) those expressing probability or presumed certainty, and (4) those referring to a condition which is contrary to fact. But it muxt again be remembered that the meanings of the four groups are not mutually exclusive: they often overlap each other. The eight forms of the root Ўр `come` grouped according to the Tenses are as follows:-

According to their main significations, they may be grouped as follows:-

(Contrary to fact)

These forms are, of course, Terminate and Active. The corresponding progressive forms of ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирч±рр and ЎрГрр ирчГрр can be made by substituting Ьир for - Грр. For Passive and Impersonal Voices, and for other progressive forms, see:

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

The forms as given above are in the subjectival construction for a masculine singular subject in the third person. The rest will be indicated below under each. Ўр¦ (Optative)

(a) Ўр¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for Ўр `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µрвр and ирч, the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

The following sentences will illustrate the usage:

Note: (i) It will be observed that all the sentences, except the last two, have an implied reference to Future. The last but one makes a general statement with no reference to time. In the last sentences, the Verb иу expresses a supposed state existing at present.

(ii) It will also be noticed that the Optative Verb in the third sentence врр¦ has the force of an Imperative. But being an indirect command, it cannot be classed as imperative which is the mood of direct command or request. For the same reason, the Imperative can have no form for the first person. The forms mentioned bymost of the grammarians as first and third person ``Imperative`` are identical with the Optative forms given above. But they cannot be regarded as Imperative. It will be observed that the second peson Plural form (µрвррч etc.) is identical in the two moods. Notice, however, in the fifth sentence the clear difference between the meaning of an Imperative secon person plural ®ррЎрч `eat, take` and that of an Optative second person, (Ўµ¶чя) ирч ёррЎрч! `so that you get well`.

With the honorific pronoun, the Optatives may denote polite request or suggestion:

ЎрСр грирь Рр ёрр¦ы `you had better not go there` (180-a).

(iv) The forms ЎрЪрч or Ўргрч (for ЎрЪрч), Ўргрчь (for Ўр¦ы), ёррЪр, ёрргрч (for ёрр¦), ёррЪры, ёрргрч (for ёрр¦ы), ирчгрч, ирчгрчь (for ирч,ирчь) etc. should be discarded as archaic. The only correct forms are those with - ¦-¦ы, (Cf.205-d).

The above forms are in the subjectival construction. The Obtative does not have the objectival construction. For Passive and Impersonal Voice. For Progressive forms, see

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

B. ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрЪрр ирч (Potential)

(a) These forms denote, mainly, possibility of the occurrece of an action with reference to the present and the past:

They may also express wish and desire, but not command, erquierment and purpose. Condition and supposition can be expressed by them These forms may be called present and past `potential`.

(b) The potential forms are made by combining the present and the past participles of the main Verb with the forms of ирч given above.

Thus:-

Singular Plural

Similarly, Щршь ЎрЪрр ирч¤ ы etc.

For changing into Feminie, - Грр, and - Ўр of the participles are replaced by - Гру and -эб: Щршь ЎрГру ирч¤ы etc. The Progressive (present forms can be made by substituting Ьир for Грр: гри Ўр Ьир ирч.

The following sentences will illustrate the usage:-

(b) The present, especially the Progressive forms, may, if the context so indicates, refer to (immediate) future:-

(c) The present Potential has only the subjectival construction. The past Potential has the objectival construction if the Verb is Transitive: see the second and the sixth sentences under (a) above. Where the object is in the oblique form, the past Potential has the neutral construction: see the third sentence under (a) above.

For Passive and Impersonal forms,

In most of the grammars, the Optative form has been mentioned as the future form of the Potential and the Optative mood completely ignored, its function having been assigned to the Imperative. This is hardly justifiable. See

(ii) It will also be noticed that the Optative Verb in the third sentence врр¦ has the force of an Imperative. But being an indirect command, it cannot be classed as imperative which is the mood of direct command or request. For the same reason, the Imperative can have no form for the first person. The forms mentioned bymost of the grammarians as first and third person ``Imperative`` are identical with the Optative forms given above. But they cannot be regarded as Imperative. It will be observed that the second peson Plural form (µрвррч etc.) is identical in the two moods. Notice, however, in the fifth sentence the clear difference between the meaning of an Imperative secon person plural ®ррЎрч `eat, take` and that of an Optative second person, (Ўµ¶чя) ирч ёррЎрч! `so that you get well`.

ЎрГрр ирч±рр, ЎрЪрр ирч±рр (Presumptive)

(a) These forms express probability and presumed or inferred certainty. They may be called `Presumptive`. The names `Doubtful Present` and `Doubtful Past` for these forms, adopted by some grammarians, are misleading. The forms seldom denote `doubt`.

The presumptive forms are made by combining the present or the past participle forms of the main Verb with the future forms of ирч. The participles are, of course, modified to agree with the subject in Number and Gender:

Щршь ЎрГрр ирч¤ь±рр, иЩр ЎрГрч ирчь±рч, Щршь ЎрЪрр ирч¤ы±рр, иЩр Ўр¦ ирчь±рч, etc.

The present progressive forms, as usual, can be made by substituting Ьир for - Грр: гри Ўр Ьир ирч±рр.

(a) The following sentences illustrate the usage:-

The two presumptive forms can be used with reference to any time present, past or future, as required by the context:

The simkple future is sometimes used as the future presumptive. Thus, гри ёрр¦±рр (pronounced with a slight emphasis on -¦) may denote, (besides `he will come`) `he is sure to come, he must come`, in which case it will really be a presumptive.
The simple future forms of the root ирч, however, are used as present presumptive:

In interrogation, the presumptive may denote surprise or perplexity:

The past presumptive of a Transitive Verb has objectival construction as in the third sentence under (a) above. When the object is in the oblique form, the past presumptive has the neutral construction as in the fourth sentence under (a).

For Passive and Impersonal Voice,

ЎрГрр, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ёррГрр ирчГрр (Contingent)

These forms denote, mainly, a condition which is contrary to fact. They may also express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. Theymay be called `Contingent`. The first two forms ЎрГрр and ЎрГрр ирчГрр may refer to the present, the past or the future. The last (ЎрЪрр ирчГрр) refers to the past.

 D. ЎрГрр, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ёррГрр ирчГрр (Contingent)

These forms denote, mainly, a condition which is contrary to fact. They may also express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. They may be called `Contingent`. The first two forms ЎрГрр and ЎрГрр ирчГрр may refer to the present, the past of the future. The last (ЎрЪрр ирчГрр) refers to the past.

The first form ЎрГрр is identical with a present participle.
The other two forms are made by combining the present and the past participles of the main verb with the present participle of ирч; Ўр Ьир ирчГрр is the progressive of ЎрГрр ирч±рр.
(a) The following senteces will illustrate the usage:

(b) The fourth sentence is in the objectival construction: the Verb is Transitive and the subject has a Ррч. The Last sentence is in the neutral construction, the object having the oblique form.

For Passive and Impersonal Voice,

The Infinitive is that form of a Verb which expresses simply the notion of the Verb without predicating it of any subject. In Hindi, it is formed by adding Ррр to the bare root and is used both as a Noun and as an Adjective.

(a) When used as a Noun (usually Abstract), the Infinitive is treated like an ordinary Noun ending in Ўр (Masc.). But, being Abstract, it is not used in the plural:

(b) The Infinitive, in spite of being a Noun, retains its verbal character and can, therefore, take an Object:

The abstract idea represented by an Infinitive being ``inanimate``, It is not usual to attach Ёорч when the Infinitive is used as an object. It does, however, attach Ёорч for signifying ``for the purpose of`` or ``with a view to``. THe Ёорч is occasionally replaced by Ёчо тврЪрч (see : - a.The following are used with Ёчо (or - Ьч) :-
ЎРЗЬ `within` (ірЬ Ёчо ЎРЗЬ) ЎРрфзррЬ `according to` (ЈзрЁчо ЎРрфзррЬ) Ўр±рч `facing, in front of, зррЩрРрч `in front of` (зрЧрЁчо зррЩрРрч) beyond` (ЩрчЬч Ўр±рч) Сру¶ч `behind` (ірЬ Ёчо Сру¶ч) ¤СрЬ `above, upon` (Щрчёр Ёчо ¤СрЬ) Рруµрч `below, under` (СрчАя Ёчо Рруµрчч) Сррзр `near, with` (зѕчдрРр Ёчо Сррзр, ЩрчЬч Сррзр) ЎрзрСррзр `around (дриЬ Ёчо ЎрзрСррзр) ШруГрЬ `within, in` (ЁоЩрЬч Ёчо ШруГрЬ)
Сриврч `before` (зррчРрч Ёчо Сриврч) ЧррЗ `after` (ЈїРрч Ёчо ЧррЗ)
СррЬ `across` (РрЗу Ёчо СррЬ) ирЖр or ОрЬр `through` (РрршЁоЬ Ёчо ирЖр, ОрЬр) твр¦ or гррзГрч `for` (тЁозрЁчо твр¦) тзргрр or тзргррЪр `except` (ЩрчЬч тзргррЪр) тЧрРрр `without`, (ЈзрЁчо тЧрРрр) ЎтГртЬ©ГрРр or Ўврргрр `besides` (ПрРр Ёч ЎтГртЬ©Гр) ЧрЗврч `instead of` (зрф®р Ёчо ЧрЗврч) ЧрЬрЧрЬ `equal` (ЩрчЬч ЧрЬрЧрЬ)тгрЭК `against` (тРрЪрЩр Ёчо тгрЭК) Ъррч±Ър or вррЪрЁо `worthy` (ГрфЩирЬч Ъррч±Ър, вррЪрЁо)тгрСрЬуГр `contrary to` (эзрЁчо тгрСрЬуГр) зррЖр `with (ЩрчЬч зррЖр)Ъриры ` (live) with or, `at the place ЁорЬВр `because of` (ЩрчЬч ЁорЬВр) of` (ЩрчЬч Ърирь `at the place) ЧррЬч Щрчь `about, concerning` (СрБяРрч Ёчо ЧррЬч Щрчь). ЩррЬч `on account of` (Шрх®р Ёчо ЩррЬч)

and both Ёорчand Ёчо тврЪрч may be omitted when the Infinitive is followed by the Verb Ўр `come` and ёрр `go`

Note (i) Infinitives are frequently used in combination with the root µрри `want`:

ЎрРрр, СруРрр etc. in such sentences may be regarded as the objects of µрри See :- µрриРрр `to want` retains its meaning..
Щршь ёррРрр µрриГрр ихь `I want to go`,
врАяЁор ±рчьЗ зрч ®рчврРрр µрриГрр иш `the boy wants to play with a ball`.
Ззр ЧрёрРрр µрриГрч ишь [also Чрёрр µрриГрч ишь `it is about to strike ten`.
[lit. `the ten (hours) want to strike`].

(ii) An Infinitive attaches Ёорч when followed by the Verbs ирч and Жрр and denotes ``about to....``.

238. The Infinitive is used as an Adjective only in combination with a few Verbs denoting obligation, necessity, requirement, compulsion etc. ирч, Жрр, СрАяр and µррти¦ are the Verbs most frequently used in this sense. The subject in such cases has Ёорч (or ¦ in Pronouns 97-a), and the Infinitive has Ррр, Рру or Ррч, according as the object is Masc. sg. or Masc. Pl.:

Note: (1) It is not uncommon to say тЁоГррЧрчь вррРрр иш, ЧррГрч ЁоЬРрр µррти¦ etc. for тЁоГррЧрчь вррРру ишь, ЧррГрчь ЁоЬРру µррти¦ etc. The latter forms are preferable. See :- However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending -Ррр to-Рру or - ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender :

врАяЁчо Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяч±ру `the boy will have to take medicine`,
Щрф»рч ГруРр Срлр твр®рРрч Жрч `I had to write three letters`.

Note: It is not correct to say Чрµµрч Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяу or Щрф»рч ГруРр Срлр твр®рРрр Жрр as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives (ёррРрр СрАяч±рр, ёррРрр Жрр etc. which are Nouns.

(c)µррти¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if
Transitive) in the second sense. The subject has Ёорч (or-¦)

ЬрЩр Ёорч тЁоГррЧрчь µррти¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)»,

ГрфЩичь ©Ърр µррти¦ `what do you want ? (What is wanted by you ?),
ЎрСрЁорч ёррРрр µррти¦ `you ought togo` (Infinitive Noun),
ЎрСрЁорч тЁоГррЧрчь СрБяРру µррти¦ `you ought to read books` (Infinitive Adjective).

Note: (i) тЁоГррЧрч СрБяРрр µррти¦ is as incorrect as Згрр СруРрр СрАяр. However, µррти¦ does not modify (asСрБяРрр and ирчРрр do). µррти¦ы as a plural of µррти¦ (ЎрСрЁорч тЁоГррЧрчь СрБяРру µррти¦ы) is occasionally met with, but had better be doscarded An Infinitive having Ёор and combined with Рриуь denotes ``not willing to.....``, ``not ready to.....``. The Finite Verb (иш) in such cases is omitted:

For further uses of the Infinitive, For Passive forms,
The Infinitive forms are not to be confused with the Ррр Imperative (180-a).

Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past.

(a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:

etc. are Present Participles.

etc. are Past Participles.

Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µрврГрр, µрврр are Masc. sg., µрврГр, µрврч; Masc. pl., µрврГру and µрвру Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µрврГр, µрврч; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique.

(a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:

Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a ифЎр, ифэб or иф¦ Тховррчь Ёорч ЩрГр ГррчАярч etc.
Both the Present Participle and the Auxiliary ифЎр (which is the Past Participle form of ирч) must agree with the Noun they qualify. Present Participles can also be used as Adverbs (usually as Adverbs of time and manner), in which case they have the oblique (-¦) form, and are often repeated:

When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:

With иу, a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``:

A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an -Ўр Noun (90) :

(a) A Past Participle can be used as an ordinary Adjective with or without ифЎр, ифэб, иф¦:

(b) It can be used, like a Present Participle, as a Noun:

The adverbial use of a Past Participle is similar to that of a Present Participle.

±р¦ тЧрРрр or (тЧрРрр ±р¦), СрБяч тЧрРрр or (тЧрРрр СрБяч) etc. denote `without going (having gone)», `without reading (having read)», when тЧрРрр is a Preposition (or Post-Position). See:- The Post-positions ЩррЬч, тЧрРрр and тзргрр (Ър) are sometimes used, for the sake of emphasis, before the Noun which they govern:-

The Verb ЁоЬ itself forms its Absolutive by appending Ёчо: ЁоЬЁчо `having done`.

Note: (i) The Absolutive forms should always be written as two separate words: ёрр ЁоЬ, ®рр ЁоЬ, СрБя ЁоЬ, etc., not as ёррЁоЬ, ®ррЁоЬ, СрБяЁоЬ etc. But ЁоЬЁчо may be writtern as one word.

ёрр ЁоЬЁчо, ®рр ЁоЬЁчо are archaic and should be discarded, ёррЁчо, ®ррЁчо are similarly to be avoided, ЎрРр ЁоЬ for Ўр ЁоЬ is dialectic and should similarly be avoided. Pairs of allied Verbs can form a `Compound Absolutive:

244. (a) The Absolutive is generally adverbial in nature. As its name suggests, it is not affected by the gender, number or case of the subject or of the object. It has various significations :

(b) The following special uses may be noted:

For Passive and Impersonal forms,

(a) Amongst Participles may be included the гррврр forms. These also are made by appending гррврр to the Oblique Infinitive forms, and are adjectival in nature, denoting ``one who does``:

When used predicative words, they may imply futurity:

гррврр can also be appended to nouns in which case it denotes `one who sells ...........`, 0
`one who deals in..........`,
`one who is concerned with........` etc.

These, of course, are not Participles, but simple Adjectives.

Being Adjectives, they are affected by Number and Gender of the Noun whcih they qualify (-гррврр, - гррвру, - гррврч), or can be used as Nouns themselves (-гррвррчь Ёорч etc.). -гррвр, a variant of - гррврр is attached to place-names for forming certain surnames, etc. :

(a) As stated earlier (166), most of the Hindi Verbs may, by slightly modifying their forms, signify Causation of the action etc. denoted by them.:

Since ``causing something tobe done`` is an action which must be directed towards somebody, all Causative Verbs are invariably Transitive. The Causatives are made by adding an - Ўр either to the bare root or to its modified form (249_.
A Causative Verb has the same forms (Voice, Moods etc.) as an ordinary Transitive Verb.

247. (a) Many Verbs have an additional Causal form, usually called ``the Second Causal`` which is made by adding - грр to the bare root or to its modified form.

(b) It must, however, be remembered that the second causal form is restricted to such verbs whose first causals denote real activity on the part of their `doer`, not merely `getting something done.` Thus, the first causal of СрБяРрр `to study, to learn` is СрБярРрр `to teach` which is a real activity on the part of the teacher, not merely `making (the student) learn` (which can be done by anybody who is able to persuade or frighten the students to learn!). This verb, therefore may form a second causal, СрБягррРрр which would mean `to get a student taught (by a teacher)». Similarly, the first causal of т±рЬРрр `to fall` is т±рЬрРрр `to fell`, which denotes an activity on the part of the person (a labourer etc.) who fells (a tree etc.), and not merely ``directing or presuading (a tree etc.) ``to fall``. This, accordingly, can have a second causal т±рЬгррРрр which would mean ``to get (a tree etc.) felled (by a labourer etc.)»« . On the other hand, in the case of a root like ЁоЬРрр `to do`, the first causal `ЁоЬрРрр` to get done` does not denote an activity on the part of the subject, but merely an order or a direction to somebody (a servant etc.) to do something. This verb, therefore, cannot have a second causal. Its second causal form ЁоЬгррРрр is (unfortunately) in existence, but is identical in meaning with the first causal ЁоЬрРрр. Many such ``false`` second causals are in common use. They have, in fact, been formed on the analogy of ``true`` second causals (like СрБягррРрр, т±рЬгррРрр etc.), and should be treated as mere alternative forms (which had better be discarded) of the first causals. Under 249, all the ``false`` causals have been given in brackets.

There are also some ``false`` first causals. These verbs, which look like the first causals of certain simple verbs are simple verbs themselves; while what look like the original verbs, are their passive forms; thus ЁорѕРрр `to cut ` looks like the first causal of ЁоѕрРрр. `to be cut` (and has been mentioned as such by almost all the grammarians!) But, as the meaning clearly indicates, ЁоѕРрр is the passive form of ЁорѕРрр, and not its ``root.`` ЁорѕРрр consequently cannot be called a causative. ЁоѕрРрр, `to get (something) cut is the first causal of ЁорѕРрр `to cut` not the second causal of ЁоѕРрр as is commonly supposed. Verbs of the nature ЁоѕРрр which have a passive meaning without having the normal passive formation may be called (from the point of view of Hindi), `original passives.` They are always intransitive. Some of the frequently used original passives are-

For further particulars,

The first causal forms are made by appending an-Ўр to the root which, in some cases, is slightly modified. The second causal is formed by appending -гррto the root, or to its modified form. The modification fo the root is similar in both the cases.

Roots ending in a consonant and having the first vowel short remain unchanged.

The second causal form given below in bracket is ``false`` and may be regarded as identical with the first causal (248).

Simple 1st Causal 2nd Causal

If the first vowel of a root is long, it changes to the corresponding short. ¦ and Ўрч change to э and Ј respectively. But ¦ч and Ўрш remain unchanged:

Note:- тЗ®рвррРрр for тЗ®ррРрр and тзр®рвррРрр for тзр®ррРрр are Colloquial. The - врр forms should be restricted to the roots ending in a vowel [See (c) below.]

(ii) ЧррчврРрр changes it meaning in the causal form. ЧрфвррРрр `to call` does not have a causal relationwith ЧррчврРрр `to speak`. The latter, however, has the second causal form ЧрфвргррРрр meaning `to cause to speak`.

The root ЧршїРрр `to sit` has five forms for the first causal: ЧршїрРрр тЧрїрРрр, тЧрївррРрр, and ЧршїрврРрр of which only the first two are acceptable. Roots ending in a long vowel shorten the same and append a-врр instead of an - Ўр in the first Causal. The second Causal, consequently, adds a - вргрр instead of a грр and ¦ and Ўрч change to э and Ј. In the following list, `False` second causals are given in brackets.

Note:- (i) ®ррРрр `to eat` has exceptional forms т®рвррРрр and т®рвргррРрр. т®рвррРрр, however, is also the first Causal of ®рчврРрр `to play` and of т®рврРрр `to blossom: to open`. Context alone would show the intended sense.

(ii) врчРрр `to take` has the exceptional form твргррРрр.

(iii) ЧррчРрр `to sow` has the exceptional form ЧрфЎрРрр or ЧрфгррРрр. ЧррчЎрРрр is dialectical.

(b) The following forms may be noted:-

Active Causal Passive

ЁоирРрр the Causal of ЁоиРрр `to say`, is passive and means `to be called `. ЁоивррРрр is thealternative form which had better be restricted to mean `to cause to tell `.

(a) As mentioned above, an Intransitive Verb becomes Transitive in the first Causal: Чрµµрр зррчГрр иш `the child sleeps`, РрршЁоЬрРру Чрµµрч Ёорч зрфвррГру иш `the maid-servant puts the child to sleep`. The original Subject (Чрµµрр etc.) assumes the role of the Object, which, if Animate, is placed in the Oblique Case with Ёорч (97-b), and if Inanimate, in the Direct Case (94-c) : ЩрёрЗхЬ СрчАя т±рЬрГрр иш `the labourer fells the tree`.

(b) A Transitive Verb has two Objects in the first Causal-the original Object, and the original Subject. The original Object in such cases becomes the primary Object, ov course, has the Direct form and the secondary Object has the Oblique form with Ёорч (94-c and 97-d):

Чрµµрр ЗхПр СруГрр иш `the child sucks (milk)»,

Щрры Чрµµрч Ёорч ЗхПр тСрвррГру иш `the mother suckles the child`.

Similarly, ЎПЪррСрЁо тгрМрртЖрбЪррчь Ёорч твр®рРрр тзр®ррГрр иш ` the teacher teaches the students how to write`.

(c) This rule, however, holds good only with such first Causals as denote real activity on the part of the Subject (of the Causal), and not mere causation (getting something done). Where mere causation is denoted, the secondary Object (original Subject) functions as an `Agent` and has the Oblique form with зрч:

Neither `Ram` nor `I` does anything here, except to order or direct the servant and the washerman.

When a Verb of the type (a) has the second Causal form, the original Subject remains as it was in the first Causal form, namely, an Object, but the Subject of the first Causal has a зрч:-

Similarly,

In the case of a Verb of the type (b), the original Subject and the Object remain what they were in the first Causal, namely, secondary Object andy primary Object, while the Subject of the first Causal has зрч:-

(a) Some roots have no causal forms at all. Such are e.g.

Occasionally, they have a ``Substitute Causal``, some other Verb runctioning as a causal for them. Thus, ШрчёрРрр `to send (to make to go)» is a Substitute Causal of ёррРрр `to go`; ЁоЬРрр `to do, to make (to cause to be)» may function as a causal of ирчРрр `to be`; and ЗчРрр `to give (to cause to obtain)» that of СррРрр `to obtain`.

(b) вррРрр `to bring` makes its first Causal with the help of врчРрр: твргрр вррРрр `to cause to bring`.

Hindi has a large numberof compound verbs..these, as already noted (167), are formed by combining two, sometimes three or more, verbs.
of the two (or more) verbs of which a compound verb consists; the first one usually is the main and the other (or the rest) subsidiary.the main verb has either the root form;or the participle form or the Infinitive form.
Except when it is a Participle, the main root has the same for all Voices, Moods, Tenses etc. All changes due to Voice, Mood, Tense and construction affect only the Subsidiary Verb. Thus -

гри ±ррРрч вр±рр `he started singing`,
гри ±ррРрч вр±ру `she started singing`,
иЩр ±ррРрч вр±рчь±рч `we shall start singing`,
ГрфЩр ±ррРрч вр±рГрч ирч `you start singing`,
Щршь СрБя µрфЁор `I have finished reading`,
гри СрБя µрфЁчо±ру `she will have finished reading`.

But гри ®ррРрр ®ррГрр µрврр ёрр Ьир иш `he is going on (continuously) eating`,гри ®ррГру µрвру ёрр Ьиу иш `she is going on eating`,

As already stated (170), the Subsidiary Verbs help to modify the `aspect` or the nature of the action denoted by the main VerbзррчРрр `to sleep`, зррч ёррРрр `to fall asleep`., Effectuve Aspect; or Completive); ®ррРрр `to eat ®ррРрч вр±рРрр `to start eating`, (Inceptive or Inchoative Aspect); ЎрРрр `to come`, ЎрЪрр ЁоЬРрр `to come frequently`, (Frequentative Aspect). гри Ўр Ьир иш `he is coming` is Progressive Aspect with a special form. See:-

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

Some Subsidiary Verbs help to change the Voice of the main Verb, usually from Active to Passive: ®ррчРрр `to lose`, ®ррч (or ®ррчЪрр) ёррРрр `to get lost`.

The Compound Verbs may be divided into four groups according to the form of main Verb; viz.; (1) Bare Root (i.e. Absolutive without ЁоЬ), (2) Infinitive, (3) Present Participle, and (4) Past Participle.
The various aspects will be noted while discussing each group.

255. It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
Щршь Ррч µррЪр Сру `I took tea` (objectival construction),
ЩршьРрч µррЪр Сру вру `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because вру is trans.) But, Щршь µррЪр Сру µрфЁор `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µрфЁор is intrans.).

Main Verb: Bare - Root (Absolutive Form)

In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without ЁоЬ (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:-

(b) ЎрРрр `to come` retains part of its own meaning while indicating
completion of an action (denoted by the main Verb). It also denotes (with an Intransitive Verb) `to come to` or `to be about to`, in which sense its past tense has the force of the present or the present perfect:

Щршь ЁорЩр ЁоЬ ЎрЪрр `I come having done the work,»
Щршь ®ррРрр ®рр ЎрЪрр `I come having taken the meal,»
Щршь Јзрч Зч®р ЎрЪрр ихы `I have come having seen him`,
Щршь ЧрЩЧрэб ирч ЎрЪрр ихы `I have been to Bombay`,
ГрфЩр, ЧррирЬ ирч ЎрЎрч `You go to the market and come back`, (lit. `you come back after having been to the market`).
врчРрр `to take` + ЎрРрр gives вррРрр `to bring`, although врч ЎрРрр `to fetch` is also in use. (Note the difference in the meaning) вррРрр does not consequently admit of objectival construction in the past tense (199).

(c) ёррРрр `to go` indicates `completion` besides making passives (Chapter XIV):
Щршь зрЧр ЗхПр Сру ёрр¤ы±рр `I shall drink off the entire milk`,
гри СрхЬу тЁоГррЧр СрБя ±рЪрр `he read the entire book`,
зруГрр Ўр ±рэб `Sita has come`.
In some cases, ёррРрр retains part of its own meaning besides
denoting completion:
РрршЁоЬ ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр ЁоЬ ±рЪрр иш `the servant has done his work and gone`,
ПррчЧру ЁоСрАч врч ±рЪрр `the washerman took away the clothes`.
(d) ЈїРрр `to arise, to get up` indicates ` (suddenly) start to....`
гри ±рр Јїр ` (suddenly) he started singing`,
Чрµµрр Ьрч Јїр `the child (suddenly, unexpectedly) started crying`.
(e) ЧршїРрр `to sit` indicates `to do something (undesirable in desperation, without forethougth, or suddenly, or completely, or forcibly`:
Јзрч Грь±р ЩрГр ЁоЬрч, Рриуь Гррч ЩррЬ Чршїч±рр `do not bother him otherwise he
will (get desperate and) strike`,
Щршь Ъри ©Ърр ЁоЬ Чршїр `what (aweful thing) have I done`!
гри Јї Чршїр he suddenly got up`,
(f) врчРрр `to take` denotes `completnion` of some action, mainly `for in the interest of oneself`:
ЩршРрч ®рр тврЪрр ` I have taken my meal`,
зррч врчРрр `to finish off sleeping`,
Ьрч врчРрр `to finish off crying`,
врч врчРрр `to take away (for oneself)»,
The compound ирч врчРрр `to be completed` is passive.
Ъри ЁорЩр ирч врч, ГрЧр иЩр ¶врчь±рч `we shall go after this work is done`.
However, in the phrase зррЖр ирч врчРрр `to accompany`, it is Active:
Щрш ЈзрЁчо зррЖр ирч тврЪрр `I accompanied him`. (g) ЗчРрр `to give`denotes `completion` of an action `for someone else`;
ЩршРрч ЎрСрЁор ЁорЩр ЁоЬ тЗЪрр `I (have) completed your work (for you)»;
гри Щрф»рч ЎСрРру тЁоГррЧр Зч Зч±рр `he will give (away) his book to me`; (ЗчРрр as main, as well as subsidiary).
ЗчРрр may also denote `to start to .....`. with an Intransitive main verb:
гри Ьрч тЗЪрр `he started crying`,
гри µрвр тЗЪрр `he started to go`.
Notice the difference;
ЩршРрч Срлр СрБя тврЪрр `I read the letter`,
ЩршРрч Срлр СрБя тЗЪрр `I read out the letter (for someone who could not
or would not read it himself)».
(h) СрґРрр `to fall` denotes ` suddenness, chance, happening`:
гри иызр СрАяр `he burst out laughing`,
Щрш т±рЬ СрАяр `I fell down (happening`:
It also makes passives with the added sense of `happening`:
¦чзрр ёррРр СрАяГрр иш `it seems.........`,
ЗхЬ СрЬ СрирАя Зу®р СрАяр ` at a distance, a mountain come into view`,
Ўр СрАяРрр means `to befall, to happen to come (unexpectedly)».
ЧрРр `to be made` + СрАяРрр means `to be possibole`:
Щрф»рзрч ёррч ЧрРр СрАя ЩршьРрч тЁоЪрр `I did whateverv I could`.

АрврРрр `to throw, is combined with Transitive Verbs and indicates `completion` with vehemence and within a short time:
ЈзрРрч СрчАя Ёорѕ Арврр `he cut away the tree`,
Чрµµрч Ррч друдрр ГррчАя Арврр `the child broke the mirror to pieces`.
Similarly, ЩррЬ АрврРрр `to kill off`, ®рр АрврРрр `eat up`,
Сру АрврРрр `to drink off` etc.
(j) ЬиРрр `to live, to continue, is sused for forming the progressive
aspect. See :-

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

(c) It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр.

(d) In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322).

(e) It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).
(k) тРрЁоврРрр `to emerge, to come out` denotes `to happen to....`, to start to.....`:
±ррАяу µрвр тРрЁовру `the carriage started moving`,
ЩрчЬр тЩрлр эПрЬ Ўр тРрЁоврр `my friend happened to come this side`.
(l) зрЁоРрр, which is not used independently, denotes `to be able to......`
This is one of the most frequently used subsidiaries (intransitive):
Щршь ±рр зрЁоГрр ихы `I can sing`,
©Ърр гри Ўр зрЁчо±рр `will he be able to come?`.
(m) µрфЁоРрр `to be finished or exhausted` (passive) denotes `completion`.
As a Subsidiary, it is Active and Intransitive:
гри ёрЧр СрБя µрфЁор, ГрЧр Јїр `he got up only after he had finished reading`,
Ёовр ГрЁо Щршь Ъри ЁорЩр ЁоЬ µрфЁхыо±рр `I shall have finished this work by to-morrow`.
(n) ЩрЬРрр `to die`, is, as a Subsidiary, combined with such main
Verbs as ёрвр - `burn`, АхЧр - `be drowned`;
гри ёрвр ЩрЬр `he was burnt (or burnt himself) to death`,
гри АхЧр ЩрЬр `he drowned himself`.
Ўр ЩрЬРрр and ёрр ЩрЬРрр denote unwanted or undersirable coming and going.
(o) ЩррЬРрр `to beat or kill` as a Subsidiary denotes `thoughtlessness` or `carelessness`:
ГрфЩрРрч Ъри ©Ърр твр®р ЩррЬр ? `what non-sense have you written?` (p) СррРрр `to find, to obtain` is synonymous with зрЁоРрр `The subject, however, does not attach Ёорч (or-¦):
гри дррЩр ГрЁо Рриуь Ўр Срр¦±рр `he will not be able to come bythis evening`,
Щршь ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр Рриуь ЁоЬ СррЪрр `I could not do my work`.
(q) µрврРрр `to move` as a Subsidiary denotes `beginning`;
ЬрГрчь врьЧру ирч µрвруь `nights began growing longer`,
гри ЧрфАюБр ирч µрврр `he is growing old`.
(r) Ь®рРрр `to keep, to place, as a Subsidiary debites `priority or
precedence (in time)»:

ЩршьРрч Срлр твр®р Ь®рр иш `I have kept the letter ready (written)»:
ЩршьРрч РрршЁоЬ зрч Ёои Ь®рр иш `I have given standing instructions to the servant`.

Main Verb: Infinitive

257. This group can be divided into two sub-groups-

where the main Verb has an unodified infinitive form and where the main Verb has the oblique form (i.e. - Ррч instead of - Ррр of the Infinitive).

258. The more important subsidiaries combined with a main Verb
in unmodified Infinitive form are as follows:-

µрриРрр `to want` retains its meaning. See :-The abstract idea represented by an Infinitive being ``inanimate``, It is not usual to attach Ёорч when the Infinitive is used as an object. It does, however, attach Ёорч for signifying ``for the purpose of`` or ``with a view to``. THe Ёорч is occasionally replaced by Ёчо тврЪрч (see : - a.The following are used with Ёчо (or - Ьч) :-
ЎРЗЬ `within` (ірЬ Ёчо ЎРЗЬ) ЎРрфзррЬ `according to` (ЈзрЁчо ЎРрфзррЬ) Ўр±рч `facing, in front of, зррЩрРрч `in front of` (зрЧрЁчо зррЩрРрч) beyond` (ЩрчЬч Ўр±рч) Сру¶ч `behind` (ірЬ Ёчо Сру¶ч) ¤СрЬ `above, upon` (Щрчёр Ёчо ¤СрЬ) Рруµрч `below, under` (СрчАя Ёчо Рруµрчч) Сррзр `near, with` (зѕчдрРр Ёчо Сррзр, ЩрчЬч Сррзр) ЎрзрСррзр `around (дриЬ Ёчо ЎрзрСррзр) ШруГрЬ `within, in` (ЁоЩрЬч Ёчо ШруГрЬ)
Сриврч `before` (зррчРрч Ёчо Сриврч) ЧррЗ `after` (ЈїРрч Ёчо ЧррЗ)
СррЬ `across` (РрЗу Ёчо СррЬ) ирЖр or ОрЬр `through` (РрршЁоЬ Ёчо ирЖр, ОрЬр) твр¦ or гррзГрч `for` (тЁозрЁчо твр¦) тзргрр or тзргррЪр `except` (ЩрчЬч тзргррЪр) тЧрРрр `without`, (ЈзрЁчо тЧрРрр) ЎтГртЬ©ГрРр or Ўврргрр `besides` (ПрРр Ёч ЎтГртЬ©Гр) ЧрЗврч `instead of` (зрф®р Ёчо ЧрЗврч) ЧрЬрЧрЬ `equal` (ЩрчЬч ЧрЬрЧрЬ)тгрЭК `against` (тРрЪрЩр Ёчо тгрЭК) Ъррч±Ър or вррЪрЁо `worthy` (ГрфЩирЬч Ъррч±Ър, вррЪрЁо)тгрСрЬуГр `contrary to` (эзрЁчо тгрСрЬуГр) зррЖр `with (ЩрчЬч зррЖр)Ъриры ` (live) with or, `at the place ЁорЬВр `because of` (ЩрчЬч ЁорЬВр) of` (ЩрчЬч Ърирь `at the place) ЧррЬч Щрчь `about, concerning` (СрБяРрч Ёчо ЧррЬч Щрчь). ЩррЬч `on account of` (Шрх®р Ёчо ЩррЬч)

and both Ёорчand Ёчо тврЪрч may be omitted when the Infinitive is followed by the Verb Ўр `come` and ёрр `go`

Note (i) Infinitives are frequently used in combination with the root µрри `want`:

ЎрРрр, СруРрр etc. in such sentences may be regarded as the objects of µрри
Щршь ёррРрр µрриГрр ихь `I want to go`,
врАяЁор ±рчьЗ зрч ®рчврРрр µрриГрр иш `the boy wants to play with a ball`.
Ззр ЧрёрРрр µрриГрч ишь [also Чрёрр µрриГрч ишь (See :- The main Varb as past participle is affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object.

The important subsidiaries are as follows :-

ЎрРрр retains its meaning (`to come`), while denoting `imminence` or `immediacy`:

дрлрф µрБяр ЎрГрр иш `the enemy is advancing (on us)»,
ЧррЗвр тірЬч ЎрГрч иш `clouds are fast gathering`.
µрврр ЎрРрр means `to come away` or `to come this way`.

ёррРрр combined with an Intransitive main Verb denotes
`going to...` `about to.....`

Щршь ЗЗб зрч ЩрЬр ёрр Ьир ихыь `I am about to die of pain`,
±ррАяу ЎШру Ўрэб ёррГру иш `the train is about to come`.
µрврр ёррРрр means `to go away`.

This use of ёррРрр with a past participle is not to be confused with the passive forms, (272).

СрАяРрр `to fall down` is usually combined with Verbs having a
similar meaning, viz. `to fall down` and denotes `about to ....`, `going to...`:

врАяЁоу т±рЬу СрАяГру иш `the girl is about to fall down`,
Щршь РрЗу Щрчь ЁхоЗр СрАяГрр ихы `I am going to jump into the river`,

ЁоЬРрр denotes `frequency` or habitual action`:

ПЪррРр зрч СрБяр ЁоЬрч ` (make it a habit to) read attentively`,
Зч®р ЁоЬ µрврр ЁоЬрч ` (always) look about when you walk`.

ЬиРрр combined with a past participle (having a passive sense)
denotes `continuity of a state`:

гри ®ррѕ СрЬ СрАяр Ьир `he kept lying on the bed`,
тЁоГррЧр Щрчёр СрЬ Ь®ру ЬиГру иш `the book is always lying on the table`.

µрриРрр `to want` denotes `imminence`:

гржррб ЎрЪрр µрриГру иш `it is about to start raining`,
Ззр Чрёрр µрриГрч ишь it is about to strike ten`.

With the following subsidiaries, the main Verb has the oblique
form of the Past participle:-

ёррРрр denotes `continuity or imminent completion`:

ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр тЁо¦ ёррЎрч `continue to do your work`,
зррыСр ЩрчьБяЁо Ёорч тРр±рврч ёррГрр иш `the snake is about to swallow up the frog`.
гри ЩрчЬу тЁоГррЧрчь твр¦ ёррГрр иш ` he is taking away my books`.

врчРрр denotes `imminent completion of something for oneself`:

Щршь Ъри Сррї ЎШру СрБяч врчГрр ихы `I shall read this lesson in no time,»
гри зрЧр ®ррРрр ®рр¦ врчГрр иш `he is about to finish off the entire food`.

ЗчРрр similarly denotes `imminent completion of an action for some one else`:

Щршь ЎрСрЁор ЁорЩр ЎШру тЁо¦ ЗчГрр ихы `I shall finish your work in no time`.

(j) АрврРрр denotes `imminent completion`:

АрЁхо Щрф»рч ЩррЬч АрврГрч ишь `the robbers are about to kill me`,

ЬиРрр denotes `continuity of a state or of a completed action`:

гри зрЗр тСр¦ ЬиГрр иш `he is always drunk`,
гри Ёорчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш he always has a coat on`.,) `it is about to strike ten`.
[lit. `the ten (hours) want to strike`]. With the Verbs СрАяРрр, ирчРрр and µррти¦, the Infinitive is used as an Adjective. See:- The Infinitive is used as an Adjective only in combination with a few Verbs denoting obligation, necessity, requirement, compulsion etc. ирч, Жрр, СрАяр and µррти¦ are the Verbs most frequently used in this sense. The subject in such cases has Ёорч (or ¦ in Pronouns 97-a), and the Infinitive has Ррр, Рру or Ррч, according as the object is Masc. sg. or Masc. Pl.:

and See:-

(a) СрАяРрр and ирчРрр (and the substantive Жрр) combine with infinitives (as already noted 238) and denote `necessity, obligation, requirement` etc. The compounds thus made are passive in meaning. The subject has

ЬрЩр Ёорч ёррРрр СрАяр `Ram had to go`,
Щрф»рч ЧрьЧрэб ёррРрр ирч±рр `I shall have to go to Bombay`.
РрршЁоЬ Ёорч ЧррёррЬ ёррРрр Жрр `the servant hjad to go to the market`.
The Infinitives here are used as Abstract Nouns.

However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending -Ррр to-Рру or - ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender :

врАяЁчо Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяч±ру `the boy will have to take medicine`,
Щрф»рч ГруРр Срлр твр®рРрч Жрч `I had to write three letters`.

Note: It is not correct to say Чрµµрч Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяу or Щрф»рч ГруРр Срлр твр®рРрр Жрр as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives ёррРрр СрАяч±рр, ёррРрр Жрр etc.

(c)µррти¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if
Transitive) in the second sense. The subject has Ёорч (or-¦)

ЬрЩр Ёорч тЁоГррЧрчь µррти¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)»,

ГрфЩичь ©Ърр µррти¦ `what do you want ? (What is wanted by you ?),
ЎрСрЁорч ёррРрр µррти¦ `you ought togo` (Infinitive Noun),
ЎрСрЁорч тЁоГррЧрчь СрБяРру µррти¦ `you ought to read books` (Infinitive Adjective).

259. The subsidiaries frequently combined with a main Verb in the oblique form are:-

вр±рРрр (Intransitive) denotes `to begin to .....`, and is very frequently used:

гри ёррРрч вр±рр `he started (to go)»,

гри ёрЩру ®ррчЗРрч вр±рр `he began to dig the ground`.

ЗчРрр `to give` denotges `to permit to.....,» `to let....`:

ЬрЩр Ёорч СрБяРрч Зрч `let Ram study`,
Щрф»рч ёррРрч тЗтёр¦ `please allow me to go,»
ЩршьРрч Јзрч ЧррГр Рриуь ЁоЬРрч Зу `I did not allow him to say anything`.

СррРрр `to obtain` denotes `to be able to` `to be permitted to....`,

(usually negative)

Щршь Ёфо¶я Рриуь ЁоЬРрч СррЪрр `I was not able to do anything`,
ГрфЩр Рриуь ёррРрч СррЎрч±рч `you will not be allowed to go`.

Main Verb: Present Participle

260. The main Verb as a Present Participle is affected by the Number and the Gender of the subject, or of the object. Compound Verbs with the main Verb in the Present Participle form have the following subsidiaries:

ёррРрр denotes `to go on doing something`:

Ьрч±р ЧрБяГрр ёррГрр иш `the malady goes on aggravating`.

ЬиРрр denotes `continue to do something as a habit`:

гри зрЧрчЬч зрч дррЩр ГрЁо ЁорЩр `he keeps working from moning till
ЁоЬГрр ЬиГрр иш eveving`.

Note: ёррРрр compounds refer to a particular act and ЬиРрр compounds to a habit.

For the progressive use of ЬиРрр, see :-

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

ЎрРрр denotes `continuity` form some past time until the present and into the futuer:

иЩр ЧрЬзррчь зрч Ърир ЬиГрч ЎрЪрч ишь `we have been living here for
years`.

The sense is almost that of a present perfect. The compound is used only in the persent perfect and past perfect.

ЧрРрРрр denotes `possible to do` (passive,).

The present participle has the oblique form, and has the sense of a Noun:

Щрф»рзрч гриры ёррГрч Рриуь ЧрРрГрр `I do not find it possible (or desirable) to go there`.

(ёррГрч in the above sentence is adverbial or absolutive (cf.241-d).

Main Verb: Past Participle

261. The main Varb as past participle is affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object.

The important subsidiaries are as follows :-

ЎрРрр retains its meaning (`to come`), while denoting `imminence` or `immediacy`:

дрлрф µрБяр ЎрГрр иш `the enemy is advancing (on us)»,
ЧррЗвр тірЬч ЎрГрч иш `clouds are fast gathering`.
µрврр ЎрРрр means `to come away` or `to come this way`.

ёррРрр combined with an Intransitive main Verb denotes
`going to...` `about to.....`

Щршь ЗЗб зрч ЩрЬр ёрр Ьир ихыь `I am about to die of pain`,
±ррАяу ЎШру Ўрэб ёррГру иш `the train is about to come`.
µрврр ёррРрр means `to go away`.

This use of ёррРрр with a past participle is not to be confused with the passive forms, (272).

СрАяРрр `to fall down` is usually combined with Verbs having a
similar meaning, viz. `to fall down` and denotes `about to ....`, `going to...`:

врАяЁоу т±рЬу СрАяГру иш `the girl is about to fall down`,
Щршь РрЗу Щрчь ЁхоЗр СрАяГрр ихы `I am going to jump into the river`,

ЁоЬРрр denotes `frequency` or habitual action`:

ПЪррРр зрч СрБяр ЁоЬрч ` (make it a habit to) read attentively`,
Зч®р ЁоЬ µрврр ЁоЬрч ` (always) look about when you walk`.

ЬиРрр combined with a past participle (having a passive sense)
denotes `continuity of a state`:

гри ®ррѕ СрЬ СрАяр Ьир `he kept lying on the bed`,
тЁоГррЧр Щрчёр СрЬ Ь®ру ЬиГру иш `the book is always lying on the table`.

µрриРрр `to want` denotes `imminence`:

гржррб ЎрЪрр µрриГру иш `it is about to start raining`,
Ззр Чрёрр µрриГрч ишь it is about to strike ten`.

With the following subsidiaries, the main Verb has the oblique
form of the Past participle:-

ёррРрр denotes `continuity or imminent completion`:

ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр тЁо¦ ёррЎрч `continue to do your work`,
зррыСр ЩрчьБяЁо Ёорч тРр±рврч ёррГрр иш `the snake is about to swallow up the frog`.
гри ЩрчЬу тЁоГррЧрчь твр¦ ёррГрр иш ` he is taking away my books`.

врчРрр denotes `imminent completion of something for oneself`:

Щршь Ъри Сррї ЎШру СрБяч врчГрр ихы `I shall read this lesson in no time,»
гри зрЧр ®ррРрр ®рр¦ врчГрр иш `he is about to finish off the entire food`.

ЗчРрр similarly denotes `imminent completion of an action for some one else`:

Щршь ЎрСрЁор ЁорЩр ЎШру тЁо¦ ЗчГрр ихы `I shall finish your work in no time`.

(j) АрврРрр denotes `imminent completion`:

АрЁхо Щрф»рч ЩррЬч АрврГрч ишь `the robbers are about to kill me`,

ЬиРрр denotes `continuity of a state or of a completed action`:

гри зрЗр тСр¦ ЬиГрр иш `he is always drunk`,
гри Ёорчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш he always has a coat on`.,

Note: (1) Compound Verbs noted in (a) - (d) can be used only
in the imperative, in the present or in the habitual past. Those
noted in (g) - (i) can be used only in the present and the
habitual past. µрврр ЎрРрр (a) and µрврр ёррРрр (b), however, can be
used without restriction.

It will be seen from the above discussion that the aspects most
frequently met with in Hindi are those of completion frequency,
beginning, continuity, permission, desire etc. The technical names
for these are, in order: Effective (Completive), Frequentative (or Iterative), Inceptive (or Inchoative), Continuative, Permissive and Desiderative.

Apart from the Tgerminate aspect, which has no special froms (170-d), the most important aspect, however, is the Progressive which is discussed below in detail.

PROGRESSIVE FORM (ЬиРрр)

(a) ЬиРрр as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: гри ёрр Ьи р иш `he is going`, гри ёррГрр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps going (habitually), гри Чршїр ЬиГрр иш `he keeps sitting`, гри Ё рчѕ СриРрч ЬиГрр иш `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods (ёррГрр Ьич±рр, µрврГрр Ьир, Чршїч Ьич, СриРрч Ьир ирчГрр etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary ЬиРрр is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past (ёрр Ьир иш - ёрр Ьир Жрр) or in the Subjective forms ЎрГрр ирч, ЎрГрр ирчГрр, ЎрГрр ирч±рр, Ўр Ьир ирч, Ўр Ьир ирчГрр, Ўр Ьир ирч±рр. In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

гри ёррГрр иш (ёрр Ьир иш) Present Indicative,
гри ёррГрр Жрр (ёрр Ьир Жрр) Habitual Past-Indicative,
гри ёррГрр ирч (ёрр Ьир ирч) Present Potential,
гри ёррГрр ирчГрр (ёрр Ьир ирчГрр) Present Contingent,
гри ёррГрр ирч±рр (ёрр Ьир ирч±рр) Present Presumptive.

The Ьир forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms (ёррГрр иш etc.).

263. Of the remaining Moods and Tenses,

the Imperative has no progressive form; the Indicative Past has no progressive form - except the rare
conditional ЎрГрр ифЎр [262-d and 322-c]; the Indicative Future progressive is identical with the presumptive progressive ёрр Ьир ирч±рр (but, obviously, for fear of confusion,
it is seldom used); the Present Perfect has no progressive form; the Past Perfect -do- the Optative -do- the Past Potential -do- the Past Presumptive -do- the Past Contingent -do- the Past Participle -do- the Present Participle, when used as an Adjective, makes itsprogressive either with ифЎр (ёррГрр ифЎр) or, less commonly with Ьир (ёрр Ьир, See:- (d) In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). and See:- The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with иш and Жрр, ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a ифЎр is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive ); the Infinitive has no progressive form; the Progressive forms of compound Verbs are made by putting the Subsidiary Verbs in the progressive, where possible; the Progressive forms of Passive are similarly made by putting ёррРрр in the progressive, where possible.

Verbs Compounded with Nouns or Adjectives

264. (a) There are a number of Nouns and Adjectives which can be combined with Verbs like - ЁоЬРрр `to do`, ирчРрр `to be`, and ЗчРрр `to give` for denoting a single verbal idea. Thus:-

крЩрр `forgiveness` + ЁоЬРрр `to do` denotes `to forgive`,
ЪррЗ `memory` + ирчРрр `to be` denotes `to remember`,
тЗ®ррэб `view, sight` + ЗчРрр `to give` denotes `to be seen, to come to view`.

It is important to remember that Nouns or Adjectives, when
combined with a Verb, forego their independent existence and
become a part of the Verb. They have, consequently, no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. Thus, in a sentence like Щршь ЬрЩр Ёорч крЩрр ЁоЬГрр ихы `I forgive Ram`, the Noun крЩрр is a component of the Verb, and is not related to Щршь or ЬрЩр nor is it the object of ЁоЬРрр. ЬрЩр, obviously, is the object of the Verb крЩрр ЁоЬРрр. (because ЁоЬРрр does
not take two objects), or as a predicative word referring to the
object (because крЩрр and ЬрЩр do not refer to the same thing. See:-

a) A Verb is a word denoting action, being, or becoming, with some reference to time and manner and used as Predicate (52): `Rama sleeps`; `he reads a book`; `they are my friends`; `he became mad`; `I gave him two books`.

(b) A Verb may be Transitive, or Intransitive (57 and 58) : reads and gave in the above sentences are Transitive, sleeps, are and became are Intransitive.

(c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books` therefore, is the ``Dorect``, or the ``primary`` Object, and him is the ``Indirect`` or the ``Secondary`` Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?``, and the Secondary Object answers `Whom?`).

(d) A Verb may denote an action as taking place at present: `he is going`; or as having taken place in the past: `he went`; or due to take place in the Future: `he will go`. It may further express a command or a wish: `go there,» `may he be happy`; or ask a question: `Will you come?`

In contrast with the above, in a sentence like Щршь ШррчёрРр ЁоЬГрр ихы `I take meal`, ШррчёрРр ЁоЬРрр is not compound since here ШррчёрРр is obviously the object of ЁоЬРрр and has its own existence. In the same way, ЁорЩр ЁоЬРрр `to do work` is not a compound since ЁорЩр does have an independent existence in such sentences as ЩршьРрч ЎрСрЁор ЁорЩр тЁоЪрр `I did your work`
(where ЁорЩр is related to ЎрСр and is not a component of the Verb).
It is not, therefore, justifiable to regard every Verb that is frequently combined with a Noun or an Adjective, as a Compound. The name `Compound (Verb)» must be restricted to the Verbs of the type of крЩрр ЁоЬРрр. No rules, however, can be laid down for identifying a true Compound. It is purely a matter of usage.

The verbs most frequently combining with a Noun or an Adjective are ЁоЬРрр, ирчРрр, ЎрРрр, ЬиРрр, СрАяРрр and вр±рРрр.

some of the frequently combining with a Noun or an Adjective
are ЁоЬРрр, ирчРрр, ЎрРрр, ЬиРрр, СрАяРрр and вр±рРрр.

Some of the frequently used compounds made with ЁоЬРрр are:-
згруЁорЬ ЁоЬРрр `to accept, to admit`,
крЩрр ЁоЬРрр `to forgive`,
ЎрЬЩШр (дрфЮ) ЁоЬРрр `to begin`,
тЧрЗр ЁоЬРрр `to see off, to bid farewell to`.

All these are Transitive. The Objects, if animate, have the oblique case with Ёорч (or ¦) ; if inanimate, they are in the direct case:

ЩршьРрч µррчЬ Ёорч крЩрр тЁоЪрр `I forgave the thief` (neutral construction),
Сррї ЎрЬьШр ЁоЬрч `begin the lesson`,
ЈзрРрч тЩрлр Ёорч тЧрЗр тЁоЪрр `he saw the friend off`.
ЪррЗ ЁоЬРрр `to recall` and ЪррЗ Ь®рРрр `to keep in memory` may also be noted [C: ЪррЗ ирчРрр or ЬиРрр, noted under 266 (a) and (d) below.]
ЩршьРрч эбдгрЬ Ёорч ЪррЗ тЁоЪрр `I recalled (i.e. prayed) to God`,
ЬрЩр Ррч Ъри ЧррГр ЪррЗ Ь®ру `Ram (always) remembered this`, but
Щрф»рч ЎСрРрч ірЬ Ёоу ЪррЗ Ўрэб `I thought of my home` is not a compound

ирчРрр, ЎрРрр, вр±рРрр and ЬиРрр form Intransitive compounds are of a passive nature although of active formation. The action, state etc. denoted by them is represented as experienced, suffered, enjoyed, felt etc. by or happening to, the subject which is placed in the oblique case with Ёорч or-¦

Whatever the subject suffers or experiences, or whatever happens to him, is represented as taking place of itself, not as done by anybody. The thing suffered or experienced is placed in the direct case and the Verb agrees with it.

ирчРрр forms a large number of such compounds:-

Зф:®р ирчРрр `to feel unhappy`,
зрьГррчжр ирчРрр `to feel satisfied`,
ЎтПрЁорЬ ирчРрр `to have (enjoy) the right`,
ЪррЗ ирчРрр `to happen to remember`,
СрГрр ирчРрр `to happen to know`,
ЁорЩр ирчРрр `to have to do`,
ирчдр ирчРрр `to be in senses`,
Чрф®ррЬ ирчРрр `to have fever`,
Щрф»рч эзр ЧррГр СрЬ Зф:®р ифЎр `I felt unhappy (at this)»,
ЬрЩр Ёорч зрьГррчжр иш `Ram is satisfied`,
зрЧрЁорч ¦Ёо-зрр ЎтПрЁорЬ и ш `all have the same right`,
Щрф»рч ЪррЗ иш `I remember`,
Щрф»рч СрГрр иш `I know`,
Јзрч ЧрифГр ЁорЩр иш `he has a lot to do`,
Чрµµрч Ёорч Чрф®ррЬ иш `the child has fever`,
Јзрч ирчдр Рриуь иш `heis not in his senses (has swooned)».

Note: A few compounds of ирчРрр which do not refer to a thing suffered, experienced etc. are Active :

ЎрЬьШр (or дрфЮ) ирчРрр `to begin` (Intransitive),
тЧрЗр ирчРрр `to take leave`,
ЩрчЬу СрБярэб Ёовр дрфЮ ирч±ру `my studies will begin to-morrow`,
иЩр тЩрлррчь зрч тЧрЗр иф¦ `we took leave of our friends`.

ЎрРрр similarly denotes `to get (intrans.)...», ` (to begin) to feel...`:
ЄорчПр (or ±рфззрр) ЎрРрр `to get angry`,
врёёрр ЎрРрр `to (begin to) feel ashamed`,
ЪррЗ ЎрРрр `to recall`,
Чрф®ррЬ ЎрРрр `to get fever`,
ирчдр ЎрРрр `to come to senses`,
ЗЪрр ЎрРрр `to feel pity`,
тСрГрр Ёорч ЄорчПр (±рфззрр) ЎрЪрр `father got angry`
врАяЁоу Ёорч врёёрр Ўрэб `the girl felt ashamed`,
Јзрч Ьрчёр Чрф®ррЬ ЎрГрр иш `he gets fever everyday`,
Щрры Ёорч тШр®ррЬу СрЬ ЗЪрр Ўрэб `mother felt pity for the beggar`.

Note: ЁорЩр ЎрРрр `to be of use` = ЁорЩр Щрчь ЎрРрр `to come into use`:
Ъри тЁоГррЧр ЩрчЬч тЁозр ЁорЩр Ўр¦±ру ? `of what use will this book be to me?`

вр±рРрр combines with Adjectives as well as with Nouns:

Шрх®р вр±рРрр `to feel hungry`,
СЪррзр вр±рРрр `to feel thirsty`,
Ўµ¶р вр±рРрр `to like`,
ЧрфЬр вр±рРрр `to dislike`,
СрГрр вр±рРрр `to come to know`.

Note: Adjectives when combined with вр±рРрр agree with the object in Gender and Number.

Чрµµрч Ёорч Шрх®р вр±ру иш `the child is hungry`,
ЬрЩр Ёорч Товр Ўµ¶ч вр±рГрч ишь `Ram likes fruits`,
Щрф»рч дррчЬ ЧрфЬр вр±рГрр иш `I dislike noise`,
иЩрчь СрГрр вр±рр иш тЁо ... `we have come to know that...`

ЬиРрр denotes `continuity`:

ЪррЗ ЬиРрр `to continue to remember`,
Чрф®ррЬ ЬиРрр `to have constant fever`,
ирчдр ЬиРрр `to remain in senses`,
Щрф»рч ЪррЗ Ьич±ру `I shall always remember`,
Јзрч Чрф®ррЬ ЬиГрр иш `he has constant fever`.

ЗчРрр and СрАяРрр are combined with certain Abstract Nouns (derived form Verbs) ending in - Ўрэб [App. I 8 (5)].

тЗ®ррэб ЗчРрр or СрАяРрр `to come into view, to be seen`,
зрфРррэб ЗчРрр or СрАяРрр `to be heard`,
эзр ЎыПрчЬч Щрь Щрф»рч Ёфо¶ тЗ®ррэб Рриуь ЗчГрр `I cannot see anything in this darkness`,
грРр Щрчь ёррГрч иф¦ Јзрч ¦Ёо дрчЬ чтЗ®ррэб тЗЪрр `he happened to see a lion while going through the forest`.

The Verbs discussed above differ from the normal passive Verbs in as much as the latter are formed by combining a past participle with the subsidiary ёррРрр (or are passive by nature) and have their logical subject always in the oblique form with зрч. Also, the normal passives denote action on the part of their logical subject, not experience.

See next chapter.

The following exceptional compounds are noteworthy:- СрАяРрр is also combined withthe roots Зч®р (Зу®р), зрфРр and ёррРр and with the Adjective ЩррврхЩр `known` (and has the same sense as in 267) :

Зч®р or Зу®р СрАяРрр = тЗ®ррэб СрАяРрр `to be seen`,
зрфРр СрАяРрр = зрфРррэб СрАяРрр `to be heard`,
ёррРр СрАяРрр and ЩррврхЩр СрАяРрр (ирчРрр) denote `to seem` or `to become known;"
¦чзрр ёррРр СрАяГрр иш...... `it seems that......`
Ъри ЧррГр Щрф»рч ЎЧр ЩррврхЩр ифэб `I came to know this only now`. (lit. `this became known to me only now)»,

Зу®рРрр `to be seen` can combine with any object; it has the same sense as тЗ®ррэб ЗчРрр (тЗ®рРрр is dialectic and should be avoided). тЩрврРрр `to meet`, when combined with an object, has a passive sense,
`to be found or obtained or given or to be met`:
Щрф»рч зрАяЁо СрЬ ¦Ёо ЭСрЪрр СрАяр тЩрврр `I found a rupee (lying) on the road`,
Ъри тЁоГррЧр Щрф»рч эРррЩр Щрчь тЩрвру `I got this book as a prize`,
ЬрЩр Ёорч ЁоАяу зрёрр тЩрвру `a severe punishment was given to Ram`,
Щрф»рч зѕчдрРр СрЬ ЎСрРрр тЩрлр тЩрврр `I happened to meet my friend at the station`,
But, Щршь ЎСрРрч тЩрлр зрч тЩрврр `I met (visited) my friend`. ©Ърр ифЎр? denotes `what happened (to) ....?`:

Чрµµрч Ёорч ©Ърр ифЎр? `what happened to the child?`
Similarly, Ёфо¶ ифЎр `something happened (to)......»

(a) СрАяРрр and ирчРрр (and the substantive Жрр) combine with infinitives (as already noted 238) and denote `necessity, obligation, requirement` etc. The compounds thus made are passive in meaning. The subject has

ЬрЩр Ёорч ёррРрр СрАяр `Ram had to go`,
Щрф»рч ЧрьЧрэб ёррРрр ирч±рр `I shall have to go to Bombay`.
РрршЁоЬ Ёорч ЧррёррЬ ёррРрр Жрр `the servant hjad to go to the market`.
The Infinitives here are used as Abstract Nouns.

However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending -Ррр to-Рру or - ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender :

врАяЁчо Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяч±ру `the boy will have to take medicine`,
Щрф»рч ГруРр Срлр твр®рРрч Жрч `I had to write three letters`.

Note: It is not correct to say Чрµµрч Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяу or Щрф»рч ГруРр Срлр твр®рРрр Жрр as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives (ёррРрр СрАяч±рр, ёррРрр Жрр etc. [see (a) above] which are Nouns.

(c)µррти¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive (see 277) It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if
Transitive) in the second sense. The subject has Ёорч (or-¦)

ЬрЩр Ёорч тЁоГррЧрчь µррти¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)»,

ГрфЩичь ©Ърр µррти¦ `what do you want ? (What is wanted by you ?),
ЎрСрЁорч ёррРрр µррти¦ `you ought togo` (Infinitive Noun),
ЎрСрЁорч тЁоГррЧрчь СрБяРру µррти¦ `you ought to read books` (Infinitive Adjective).

Note: (i) тЁоГррЧрч СрБяРрр µррти¦ is as incorrect as Згрр СруРрр СрАяр

However, µррти¦ does not modify (asСрБяРрр and ирчРрр do). µррти¦ы as a plural of µррти¦ (ЎрСрЁорч тЁоГррЧрчь СрБяРру µррти¦ы) is occasionally met with, but had better be doscarded ЎрРрр in the sense `to be known` usually combines with Infinitives and some pronouns like ©Ърр, Ёф¶ etc. :

ГрфЩрЁорч СрБяРрр ЎрГрр иш? `do you know how to read?`
Щрф»рч Ёфо¶ Рриуь ЎрГрр `I know nothing`,
врАяЁчо Ёорч ЧррчврРрр Шру Рриуь ЎрГрр `the boy doesn`t even know how to speak`.

The Passive Voice has already (171-b) been defined as the form of a verb which repersents the subject as the upon. The grammatical subject
(``of which somthing has been said ``) in this Voice is the logical object - the preson or the thing towards whom the cation is directed. The logical subject -the dore- is not always mentioned. But when the logical subject is mentioned, it has invariably the oblique form with зрч. Only Transitive Verbs can have Passive Voice
(a) In a sentence like, дрлрф `the enemy` who has been acted upon (killed). дрлрф, therefore, isthe real object-towards whome the action of killed has been dircted.
(b) In a sentece like Щрф»рзрч µррЪр Рриуь Сру ёррГру [`I cannot take tea` (literally, `tea cannot be durnk by me`)], `tea` is the grammatical subject. But it is, in fact, the object of `drink`. The logical subjict is `I`, which is mentioned here and has the oblique form with `зрч`.
(c) In both the above sentences, the Objects (дрлрф and µррЪр) are in the Direct case and the Verbs (ЩррЬр ±рЪрр and Сру ёррГру) agree with them in Number, Gender and Person. The construction, thus, is objectival. A Passive does not admit of subjectival construction, because the logical Subject is always in the Oblique Case.

The Passive, however, does have the neutral construction where the Verb has masc. third person, singular form,agreeing neither with the logical Subject (which is seldom mentioned), nor with the Object. This, for example is the case in ЁоЩрврр Ёорч ЧрффвррЪрр ±рЪрр `Kamala was called` (literally, `with reference to Kamala, it was called`). Who called Kamala is not mentioned and `Kamala` the Object has the Oblique Case with Ёорч. This construction is commonly used when the Object is Animate, although ЁоЩрврр Чрфвррэб ±рэб is equally correct.

(a) But whatever the construction, the formation of Passive Voice is regular. It is simply made by combining the Verb ёррРрр `to go` with the Past Participle of the main root:

(b) The Compound Verb thus made is treated like an ordinary Verb, the Past Participle (main Verb) agreeing with the Object in Number and Gender and the subsidiary ёррРрр being modified to form Aspect, Mood and Tense, (cf 261) :

The Infinitive form is ЩррЬр ёррРрр, the Present Participle is ЩррЬр ёррГрр ифЎр, and Past Participle is ЩррЬр ±рЪрр (or ифЎр). See:- The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with иш and Жрр, ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a ифЎр is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d).

The Ьир progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ЗршАя Ьиу ±ррАяу `the running train` and т±рЬ Ьиу гржррб `the falling rain` are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary.

If the main Verb has two Objects, the secondary Object has Ёорч (or-¦ with Pronouns) and the primary Object is put in the Direct Case, with which the Verb agrees:

(a) It is not usual to mention the logical Subject (the ``doer``) of a Passive Verb, unless absolutely necessary. The Subject, thus, has to be mentioned when its ability or inability to do something is expressed:

The ``doer``, if mentioned, has зрч.

(b) Apart from the above (`ability` - `inability` case), a logical Subject may sometimes have to be mentioned for the sake of clarity etc. In such cases, зрч may be substituted by Ёчо ирЖр or Ёчо ирЖррчь `at the hands of....`, or in affected style by Ёчо ОрЬр.
ЬрЩр Ёо чирЖр (ирЖррчь) дрлрф ЩррЬр ±рЪрр
ЬрЩр Ёчо ОрЬр дрлрф ЩррЬр ±рЪрр (affected style)
(c) Subjectless Passives are much more frequent:

(a) Apart from the ёррРрр passives discussed above, there are a large number of Verbs which are Passive by nature (without the help of a subsidiary or nominal compound). Some of these have been mentioned in 248 and 249 (d):

(b) All these are, of course, Intransitive in form. Their Active forms are naturally Transitive. Both the Passive and the Active forms now exist as independent Verbs, the Passive usually having short vowels and the Active having the corresponding long vowels :

Passive Active

The Active forms are used like ordinary Transitive Verbs. They are not Causals. and they can form a Passive as well: Ёорѕр ёррРрр, ®ррчврр ёррРрр, ЧррыПрр ёррРрр, etc. These ёррРрр Passives differ from the natural Passives [noted in (a) above] in signification. The Natural Passives represent the action as happening of itself-spontaneously, and naturally: there is not the slightest hint of its being done by somebody. Hence the doer is not mentioned:

The ёррРрр Passives, on the other hand, represent the action as being performed by a doer who may or may not be mentioned, but can be guessed:

The Passive Verbs of the ЁоѕРрр type are usually called ``Neuter Verbs``. It would, perhaps, be better to call these Verbs ``Natural Passives`` or ``Original Passives``.
It is, however, to be noted that when ability or inability to do something is to be denoted, even a Natural Passive needs a logical subject, which as usual, has the Oblique form with зрч:

Note: With a first person doer, ``inability`` to do something may imply ``unwillingeness``: Ъри СрчАя Щрф»рзрч Рриуь ЁоѕГрр may mean `I am not willing to undertake the heavy task of cutting this tree`.

ЧрРрРрр `to be made` is also used in the sense `possible to do` when it is usually combined with the Subsidiary СрАяРрр (256-g). The subject, as in (e) is almost always mentioned:-

Щрф»рзрч ёррч ЧрРр СрАяр ЁоЮы±рр
`I will do whatever is possible for me to do` (or `whatever I am capable of doing`),

ирчРрр `to happen`, тЩрврРрр `to be found or met with`, and Зу®рРрр `to be seen` have already been noted above (269 b-c-d) as Passive denoting experience etc. тЩрврРрр `to meet` is also Active. But Зу®рРрр is an original Passive denoting experience, etc. тЩрврРрр `to meet ` is also Active. But Зу®рРрр is an original Passive derived form Зч®рРрр `to see`. It is, however, used only as a Passive of experience. (269-b).

µррти¦ is specially to be noted. It has already been discussed in 270 c. µррти¦ is, in fact, a true passive derived from µрриРрр `to want`. In form, it is an old indicative present passive, in third person singular. The plural form could be µррти¦ы. But µррти¦ is now felt as an isolated and unchangeable form, so µррти¦ы is incorrect.]

THE IMPERSONAL VOICE

The Impersonal Voice, as stated earlier (171-c), is restricted to Intransitive Verbs, and is always in the neutral construction (273-c) being always in the third person singular masculine form. The Verb has the form of a ёррРрр passive, viz. past participle of the main Verb + ёррРрр (272-a)
µрвррч, зррчЪрр ёррЪр `come, let us go to sleep` (literally, `let it be slept`).
The subject is not mentioned in the above sentence. Where it is mentioned, it is oblique form with зрч and is represented, as in the passive (273-c) as ``able`` or ``unable`` to do something:
Щрф»рзрч µрврр Рриуь ёррГрр `I cannot walk` (lit. `It cannot be walked by me`).

Note: The above sentence differs from a sentence in passive - Щрф»рзрч µррЪр Рриуь Сру ёррГру (271-b) - only in so far as it has an Intransitive Verb which, naturally, does not have to agree with an object because none exists. Otherwise, the formation and expression of the two sentences are identical.
The Impersonal Voice, thus, is a variety of the Passive, as applied to Intransitive Verbs. The definition of the Passive, ``it represents the (grammatical) subjects as acted upon``, is, obviously, not applicable to the Impersonal since there is no logical object which alone is the (grammatical) subject of a Passive Verb. In this respect, the Impersonal Voice is similar to the Active as, like the Active, it represents the subject (where it is mentioned) as ``doing`` something. (171).

Abverbs, Post-Postions, Conjunction
and Interjection

An Adverb is a word that modifies or qualifies a Verb i.e.
restricts it in some way. In `the boy is here,» `I came to-day`, and `he writes carefully,» the words here, to-day and carefully are Adverbs: they restrict the signification
of the Verbs. The boy is here, not elsewhere; I came to-day, neither yesterday nor anyearlier day; he writes carefully not carelessly or Indifferently.

In a sentence like `he writes very carefully`, the word very
is also an Adverb, since it further restricts the Verb; he writes not with ordinary care, but with great care. Very, however, restricts the Verb indirectly, by restricting the other Adverb, carefully, which restricts the Verb directly. An Adverb may, therefore, qualify another Adverb. The same word very however, has a different function in a very good boy: it modifies the Adjective good which in its turn modifies the Noun boy. It is usual to regard this very and similar words as Adverbs even when they modify an Adjective. But, in fact, they too are (indirect) Adjectives, and are treated as such in Hindi, undergoing the same changes due to Number and Gender as affect an ordinary Adjective:

Some of these Adjective-modifying words have been noted in 141.

Hindi Adverbs can be divided into two classes:

those formed from pronouns, and the rest.

Bothe these classes may be subdivided into various groups according to their meaning.

The pronominal Adverbs, like the pronominal Adjectives (137) are derived from Demonstrative, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. These are:- ЎЧр `now`, Ъриры `here`, эПрЬ `hither`, Ъррчь `thus` (from Ъри); - - гриры `there`, ЈПрЬ `thither`, (from гри); ёрЧр `when`, ёриры `where`, тёрПрЬ `whither`, ёЪррчь `as` (from ёррч); ЁоЧр `when?`, Ёоиры `where`, тЁоПрЬ `whither?`, ©Ъррчь `why?` from (ЁоршРр); ГрЧр `then`, Гриры `there`, тГрПрЬ `thither`, ГЪррчь `so, in the same way` (from зррч). Грирщь and тГрПрЬ (except in proverbs) are archaic or dialectic and as such should not be used. The other two Adverbs derived from зррч [ the archaic correlative Pronoun 110 (iii), viz. ГрЧр and ГЪррчь] are affiliated to гри (so that the second series in the above list would be ГрЧр, гриры ЈПрЬ ГЪррчь). Note that ©Ъррчь does not mean `how`. The word for `how` is Ёшозрч (287), or ©Ъррчь ЁоЬ (рЬµриртµр 285-1).

Of the Pronominal adverbs listed above:

(a) ЎЧр, ёрЧр, ЁоЧр and ГрЧр are Adverbs of Time;
(b) Ъриры, ёриры Ёоиры and гриыр are Adverbs of Place;
(c) эПрЬ, тёрПрЬ, тЁоПрЬ and ЈПрЬ are Adverbs of Direction;
(d) Ъррчь, ёЪррчь, ©Ъррчь (ЁоЬ) and ГЪррчь are Adverbs of Manner

All these Adverbs can append the emphatic particle иу (294 a): эПрЬ иу `this very direction, just hither`, ЈПрЬ иу `in that very direction, just thither`. With ЎЧр etc. and Ъриры etc., however, иу combines in Sandhi, as already noted in 50-c and e:

The following special uses of the pronominal Adverbs may be noted: ЎЧр like the English `now` (introductory) may denote `then` in narration etc.
ЎЧр Шр±ргррРр Ррч ЎёрбфРр зрч Ёоир `now did the Lord tell Arjuna`. ЎШру denotes `just now`; but ЎШру....тЁо = `just....when`, or `no sooner......than`:
ЎШру Щршь зѕчдрРр Срифьµрр иу Жрр тЁо ±ррАяу Ўр ±рэб `I had just reached the station when the train arriver` or `no sooner had I reached the station than the train arrived`. ЁоШру is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `ever, sometimes, (at) some (one) time`:

The interrogation in the first sentence is due to ©Ърр (expressed or implied, 112-ii), and not due to ЁоШру.

:- Ёоиуь is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `somewhere, at some (or, any) place`:

гри Ёоиуь ±рЪрр иш `he has gone somewhere`,
ЩрчЬу ЁоврЩр Ёоиуь т±рЬ СрАяу `I dropped my pen somewhere`.
Ёоиуь also denotes `much, far, to a great extent`;
гри Щрф»рзрч Ёоиуь ЧрАяр иш `he is much older than I`.
Ёоиуь-Ёоиуь = `at some places`, (App. III 5-f),
Ёоиуь Рриуь = `nowhere` зрЧр Ёоиуь = `everywhere`,
ёриры - Ёоиуь = `wherever`, Ёоиуь-Рр-Ёоиуь=`somewhere or the other`.

ЁоШру-ЁоШру denotes `sometimes, occasionally` (App. III 5-f)
ЁоШру Рриуь = `never` (but the two words can be interspaced by an Object, an Adverb etc.):
ЈзрРрч ЁоШру Щрф»рч тµрѕюїу Рриуь твр®ру `he never wrote a letter to me`.
ЁоШру - Рр - ЁоШру = `sometime or other` (App. III 5-j)
ёрЧр ЁоШру = `whenever`.

ЁоШру `just when (as)» (relative) = and ёрЧр Шру `whenever` are now less frequent, the former having been replaced by ёЪррчь иу [ (i) belowя],
and the latter by ёрЧр ЁоШру (c above).
Ёоиуь is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `somewhere, at some (or, any) place`:

гри Ёоиуь ±рЪрр иш `he has gone somewhere`,
ЩрчЬу ЁоврЩр Ёоиуь т±рЬ СрАяу `I dropped my pen somewhere`.
Ёоиуь also denotes `much, far, to a great extent`;
гри Щрф»рзрч Ёоиуь ЧрАяр иш `he is much older than I`.
Ёоиуь-Ёоиуь = `at some places`, (App. III 5-f),
Ёоиуь Рриуь = `nowhere` зрЧр Ёоиуь = `everywhere`,
ёриры - Ёоиуь = `wherever`, Ёоиуь-Рр-Ёоиуь=`somewhere or the other`. (App. III 5-j)

Note:- In rhetorical-Interrogative sentences, ЁоШру and Ёоиуь
denote `ever, at all`, when the question expresses ``an emphatical contrary assertion``:

ГрфЩр ЁоШру (Ёоиуь) ЩрчЬу ЧррГр зрфРрГрч Шру ирч ? `do you ever (at all) listen to me ?` (=`you never listen to me`).

The Verb in such sentences is followed by a Шру. Ёоиуь is used in a similar sense in negative rhetorical-Interrogative sentences, where it expresses undesirability of a possible occurrence, action etc.
The sentence usually contains a Гррч, except if the Verb is potential (229):

Ёоиры.... Ёоиры = `where on the one hand....where on the other`,
Ёоиуь....Ёоиуь = `here (at one place)....there (at another place)», or `now.............now`,
ЁоШру....ЁоШру=`sometimes..............sometimes`,
ЎШру.....ЎШру= `now.........now`, or `first.........then`.
All these have the force of a conjunction, and may be called `Conjunctive Adverbs`. эПрЬ-ЈПрЬ = `hither and thither`.
эПрЬ......ЈПрЬ = `on the one hand............., on the other...........` (Conjunctive),
Ъриры..............грирщь = `here...........there` (Conjunctive). ёЪррчь ёЪррчьь....ГЪррчь-ГЪррчь denotes proportionately (Conjunctive). ГЪррчь-ГЪрчь is sometimes omitted.

ёЪррчь иу....ГЪррчь иу = `no sooner......than` (Conjunctive).
Ъррчь иу denotes `for no particular reason or purpose`,`in vain`, `casually;

ёЪррчь Ёор (Ёоу, Ёчо) ГЪррчь `in the same condition, order or way as before`:
ЧрфБярСрч Щрчь Шру ЈзрЁчо ЗрьГр ёЪррчь Ёчо ГЪррчь ЧрРрч ишь even in old age, his teeth are in the sam (sound) condition`. ©Ъррчь ЁоЬ in the sense of `how` is archaic (282-iii).
Гррч, used as a correlative of ёрЧр `when` or of ЪртЗ `if`, signifies `then`:
ёрЧр Јзрч ЄорчПр ЎрЪрр Гррч гри тµрввррРрч вр±рр `when he got angry, (then) he began to shout`,
ЪртЗ ГрфЩр гриры ±р¦ Гррч Ср¶ГррЎрч±рч `if you go there, (then) you will repent`. See :- (c) Гррч is emphatic, sometimes denoting contrast:
гри ЎрЪрр Гррч иш `he has come`,
Сриврч Щрф»рч ёррРрч Гррч Зрч `first let me go`,
ЬрЩр Ёорч Гррч ЧрфвррЎрч `call Ram` or `just call Ram`,
тЁоГррЧр Гррч тЩрвру, ЁоврЩр Рриуь `the book was found, (but) not the pen`,
гри ЩрчЬч Сррзр Гррч ЎрЪрр, СрЬ Чррчврр `he did come near me, but did not speak`.
Рриуь
As a negative Adverb (293-b-ii). For the adverbial Гррч, зрчч 285-m; for conjunctive Гррч,and See:- ЪртЗ....Гррч `if .....then`, (285-m); ЪрМртСр `although`; Гррч Шру=тТоЬ Шру =`yet even so`; ЪрМртСр....ГрЖрртСр `though....yet`:
ЪртЗ ЎрСр µрричь, Гррч Щршь гриры ёрр зрЁоГрр ихы `I can go there if you so want`.
All the pronominal Adverbs, including those combined with иу (but excluding those denoting manner), may be used as Nouns and attach the case-signs зрч (`from, since`) Ёорч (`to` with Adverbs of place), СрЬ (`at` with Adverbs of place only) and Ёор (`of`), besides the preposition ГрЁо (`upto`) 299-d):

With pronominal (and other) Adverbs denoting time, Ёор has occasionally the sense of зрч (from, since):
ЎЧр Ёор `since this hour` ЁоЧр Ёор `since when?`, or `how
long` (`a long time ago`).
Щршь ЎЧр Ёор ±рЪрр дррЩр Ёорч врршѕхь±рр `leaving now, I shall return in the evening`,
гри ЁоЧр Ёор Ъриры Чршїр иш `how long has he been sitting here?`.
Ёоиуь Ёор `of some place, of some standing`, or `confounded` ....etc.
ЎрЪрр ЧрАяр СртВАГр Ёоиуь Ёор ! `he thinks he is a great scholar`
`scholar, indeed`!
µрвр Ъриры зрч, µррчЬ Ёоиуь Ёор ! `get away, you confounded thief !`

(a) The pronominal Adjectives ¦чзрр, гршзрр, Ёшозрр, ёршзрр, Гршзрр (137 a), in their oblique forms ¦чзрч, гршзр, Ёшозрч etc. are used as Adverbs of Manner;

¦чзрч `in this manne, thus`,
Ёшозрч? `how?`, `why?` etc.
All these have more or less the same meaning as Ъррчь, ёЪррчь, ©Ъррчь etc. and can append иу.
(Чр) ¦чзрр, гршзрр etc. and эГрРрр, ЈГрРрр, etc. can be used as Adverbs of manner and degree:
Щршь ¦чзрр Шрр±рр...... `I ran so (fast)........»
гри эГрРрр ЬрчЪрр....... `he cried so much.......`

Ёфо¶, Ёфо¶ - Ёфо¶ `a little`, `partly`, `to some extent`, and ЧрифГр-Ёфо¶ `to a great extent`, `a great deal` are also used adverbially (111 and 118-16, 15):
гри Ёфо¶ иыьзрр `he smiled a little`,
Чрф®ррЬ Ёфо¶-Ёфо¶ ЈГрЬр иш `the fever has partly (to some extent) subsided`,
РрЗу Ёор СррРру ЧрифГр-Ёфо¶ `the water (level) in the river has gone
ірѕ ±рЪрр иш down a great deal`. Ёорчэб prrefixed to a numeral denotes `about, some, approximately`. (111-iii and 149). эГрРрч Щрчь =`in the meanwhile` is an Adverb of time. ЎСрРрч-ЎрСр (109-c) may be used as an Adverb of manner and denotes `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`:
гри ЎСрРрч-ЎрСр µрврр ±рЪрр `he went away of his own accord, ЎрСр-иу-ЎрСр (App, III 5-h) is also an Adverb of manner denoting `spontaneously` or `aside`. ЎрСр-зрч-ЎрСр = `spontaneously` = ЎСрРрч ЎрСр [109 (c) and App.III 5 (h)]. ©Ърр is used adverbially in several senses, for which see ©Ърр is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation:
гри ЎрЗЩру ©Ърр иш, Ьркрзр иш `call him a man? he is a demon`;
Чрµµрр ©Ърр иш, ±рфвррЧр Ёор Тховр иш `it`s not a child, it`s a rose.`
гри ЗршАяГрр ©Ърр иш, ЈАяГрр иш `dose he run? he flies!`
ГрфЩр Щрф«оЗЩрч Щрчь ©Ърр ёруГррч±рч `you will win the case? impossible! See :-The pair ©Ърр ....©Ърр ©Ърр-©Ърр `which things?`, `what things?`:
Шррэб ЧррєррЬ зрч ©Ърр-©Ърр врр¦ ишь ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. is also adverbial (conjunctive) in sense.for Ёфо¶....Ёфо¶ as an Adverb, see:- Ёфо¶.....Ёфо¶ `some....some` [Conjunctive. [See СрЬ лрРГрф, тЁоРГрф, Щр±рЬ or врчтЁоРр `but`, СЯГЪрфГр or ЧртвЁо `but also, besides, but, on the other hand`;
ЩршьРрч ЎрСр Ёор Ёфо¶ тЧр±ррАр Рриуь, СЯГЪрфГр (ЧртвЁо) Шрврр иу тЁоЪрр иш
`I have done no charm to you; on the other hand, I have rendered you a service`.
ЧрЬРр `but` is now obsolete.]:

Adverbs other than the pronominal may also be divided into various groups. Some of these are Adjectives used as Adverbs:
Щршь ЖррчАяр (Ёфо¶) АЬр `I felt a little afraid`,
гри ЧрифГр Ьрчэб `she cried a great deal`.
Others are Nouns+some case-sings used adverbially:
Щршь ЧрАяу ЁотїРррэб зрч гриры Срифыµр СррЪрр `I could reach there with great difficulty`.
Still others are formed from Verbs:
Щршь ЗршАяГрч-ЗршАяГрч ЖрЁо ±рЪрр `I got tired while running`. (241-c--242-c); while a large number are `original` Adverbs are:
Some of the Adjectives used as adverbs are:
ЖррчАяу `a little`, ЧрифГр `much, very. agreat deal`,
ЖррчАяр-ЧрифГр `to some extent`, Ўµ¶р `well`,
ЧрфЬр `ill`, Сриврч ` (at) first`,
ЁоЩр `less`, ЗхзрЬч `secondly` etc.,
ЁоЩр-зрч-ЁоЩр `at least` (App. ЧрифГр ЁоЩр `very little`,
III, 5-i) ёЪррЗр `much` etc.
гри ЧрифГр Ўµ¶р ±ррГрр иш `he sings very well`,
Сриврч ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр ЁоЬрч `first do your work`.
(a) Nouns used as adverbs usually have the case-signs - Ёорч (97-f), зрч (98-d), Щрчь (99-b) and СрЬ (100-b-c):

дррЩр Ёорч `in the evening`, ПЪррРр зрч `attentively`,
тЗРр Щрчь `during day`, ЎрРрч СрЬ `after coming` etc.

However, Nouns denoting time which is specified by an Adjective (or a word used as an Adjective), or even otherwise, are generally used with out the case-signs Ёорч and Щрчь (cf 97-f):

Ёовр ЬрГр (Щрчь) ЗчЬ зрч врршѕр `last night I returned late`,
Јзр тЗРр ГрфЩр Ёоиры Жрч? `where were you that day?`.
Similarly, Јзр зрЩрЪр `at that time`,
эзру крВр `at this very moment, immediately`,
¦Ёо тЗРр ` (on) one day`,
ЈРр тЗРррчь `in those days` (where тЗРррчь has retained the oblique form, although Щрчь has been dropped) etc.

The same principle is followed in the case of Nouns which denoote (unaided by an Adjective) a specific time, and which are now felt mor or less as ``original`` Adverbs (see:- The more important ``Original`` Adverbs may be divided into the following groups according to their meaning. Many of these are, in fact, Nouns or Adjectives with case-signs (and modifications due to them) omitted or dropped or worn out by use. Adverbs of Time:
Ўрёр `to-day` (also a noun)
Ёовр `to-morroe` or `yesterday` or `day afer to-morrow` (also anoun),
Ўрёр-Ёовр `now-adays,»
СЯтГртЗРр or Ьрчёр or иЬ Ьрчёр `every day` (also noun),
ЧррЗ (Щрчь) `afterwards`,
зрЧрчЬч `in the morniing` (зрЧрчЬр is a noun),
ГрАяЁчо `at dawn` (ГрАяЁор is a noun),
ЧррЬ-ЧррЬ `again and again,» `repeatedly`,
¦ЁоЗЩр or Шрѕ or ТоршЬРр or ГрфЬРГр `immediately,»
тРрЬРГрЬ or вр±ррГррЬ `continuously`,
иЩрчдрр or зрЗр `always`,
тТоЬ `again`, `then`,
СЯрЪр: or Ў©зрЬ `often`,
ЄоЩрдр: by degrees, gradually`,зрЩШргрГр: `possibly`, ТоврГр: accordingly,»
ГрЬзррчь `three days back or hence`, (also a noun) and РрЬзррчь `four days back or hence` (also a noun) are in use. Adverbs of Place:

Ўр±рч `before, in front`, Сру¶ч `behind, at the back`,
Сррзр or тРрЁоѕ `near` ЎрзрСррзр `on all sides`,
ЗхЬ `far` зррЩрРрч `in front`,
¤СрЬ `above`, Рруµрч `below`,
зррЖр `together`, Ўвр±р `away, apart`,
ЗртиРрч `to the right`, ЧррЪрчь `to the left`,

ЎрчЬ `towards`, эзр ЎрчЬ `this way`
Јзр ЎрчЬ `that way`, СррЬ `across`, ЧрриЬ `outside`, ШруГрЬ or ЎРЗЬ `inside` etc.
(c)Adverbs of Manner:
ЎЁозЩррГр or ЎµррРрЁо or зризрр or ¦Ёор¦Ёо `suddenly, abruptly`,
ёрвЗу (зрч) Quickly, speedily`, ПруЬч (зрч) or ПруЬч-ПруЬч, `slowly, by degrees`,
ЎгрдЪр or ёрЭЬ Ўрчsurely`,
їуЁо `exactly`, зрµр or зрµрЩрфµр `truely`, гЪрЖрб, грцЖрр `in vain, vainly,» СршЗвр `on foot`. ЄоЩрдр: `by degrees`.
(d) Adverbs of Degree:
тЧрвЁфовр `completely, entirely,» СЯрЪр: `almost`,
вр±рШр±р `almost, nearly`, ёрЬр `a little`,
ЎршЬ `more`, тзрТбо, Ёчогрвр, Чрзр `only`, etc.).Thus, Ўрёр `to-day, this day`, Ёовр `to-morrow` or `yesterday`, СрЬзррчь `day before yesterday` or `day after to-morrow`, etc. are used without Ёорч or Щрчь. Similarly, the Noun ЬрГр when it denotes `last night`, is used without Ёорч or Щрчь. The suffixes (or particles) Щррлр and ШрЬ when attached to Nouns denoting time, signify `only` and `the whole....` respectively (294-e-f).

Thus-
крВр Щррлр `just a moment`, тЗРр ШрЬ `the whole day`,
ЬрГр ШрЬ `the whole night`, ірВѕч ШрЬ `one whole hour`.
крВр ШрЬ and Срвр ШрЬ, however, are synonymous with крВр Щррлр. These Nouns can be used as Adverbs without attaching Ёорч:
гри ЬрГр ШрЬ ЁорЩр ЁоЬГрр иш `he works the whole night`,
But, гри ЬрГр Ёорч ЁорЩр ЁоЬГрр иш `he works at night`,
ГрфЩр тЗРр ШрЬ Ёоиры Ьич? `where were you the whole day?`,
крВр Щррлр (or крВр ШрЬ) Ърирь ЭЁорч `stop here (for) a moment`.

Of the Verbs used as Adverbs, Participles (Present and Past) and the Absolutive are the most frequent. See :- (a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:

Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a ифЎр, ифэб or иф¦ Тховррчь Ёорч ЩрГр ГррчАярч etc.
Both the Present Participle and the Auxiliary ифЎр (which is the Past Participle form of ирч) must agree with the Noun they qualify. Present Participles can also be used as Adverbs (usually as Adverbs of time and manner), in which case they have the oblique (-¦) form, and are often repeated:

When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:

With иу, a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``:

A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an -Ўр Noun (90) :

ЩрчЬч ЎрГрч иу `as soon as I came`,
Јзрч ±р¦ иф¦ `since he went`,
ЧрЩЧрэб ирчЁоЬ `via Bombay`, etc.

The more important ``Original`` Adverbs may be divided into the following groups according to their meaning. Many of these are, in fact, Nouns or Adjectives with case-signs (and modifications due to them) omitted or dropped or worn out by use. Adverbs of Time:
Ўрёр `to-day` (also a noun)
Ёовр `to-morroe` or `yesterday` or `day afer to-morrow` (also anoun),
Ўрёр-Ёовр `now-adays,»
СЯтГртЗРр or Ьрчёр or иЬ Ьрчёр `every day` (also noun),
ЧррЗ (Щрчь) `afterwards`,
зрЧрчЬч `in the morniing` (зрЧрчЬр is a noun),
ГрАяЁчо `at dawn` (ГрАяЁор is a noun),
ЧррЬ-ЧррЬ `again and again,» `repeatedly`,
¦ЁоЗЩр or Шрѕ or ТоршЬРр or ГрфЬРГр `immediately,»
тРрЬРГрЬ or вр±ррГррЬ `continuously`,
иЩрчдрр or зрЗр `always`,
тТоЬ `again`, `then`,
СЯрЪр: or Ў©зрЬ `often`,
ЄоЩрдр: by degrees, gradually`,зрЩШргрГр: `possibly`, ТоврГр: accordingly,»
ГрЬзррчь `three days back or hence`, (also a noun) and РрЬзррчь `four days back or hence` (also a noun) are in use. Adverbs of Place:

Ўр±рч `before, in front`, Сру¶ч `behind, at the back`,
Сррзр or тРрЁоѕ `near` ЎрзрСррзр `on all sides`,
ЗхЬ `far` зррЩрРрч `in front`,
¤СрЬ `above`, Рруµрч `below`,
зррЖр `together`, Ўвр±р `away, apart`,
ЗртиРрч `to the right`, ЧррЪрчь `to the left`,

ЎрчЬ `towards`, эзр ЎрчЬ `this way`
Јзр ЎрчЬ `that way`, СррЬ `across`, ЧрриЬ `outside`, ШруГрЬ or ЎРЗЬ `inside` etc.
(c)Adverbs of Manner:
ЎЁозЩррГр or ЎµррРрЁо or зризрр or ¦Ёор¦Ёо `suddenly, abruptly`,
ёрвЗу (зрч) Quickly, speedily`, ПруЬч (зрч) or ПруЬч-ПруЬч, `slowly, by degrees`,
ЎгрдЪр or ёрЭЬ Ўрчsurely`,
їуЁо `exactly`, зрµр or зрµрЩрфµр `truely`, гЪрЖрб, грцЖрр `in vain, vainly,» СршЗвр `on foot`. ЄоЩрдр: `by degrees`.
(d) Adverbs of Degree:
тЧрвЁфовр `completely, entirely,» СЯрЪр: `almost`,
вр±рШр±р `almost, nearly`, ёрЬр `a little`,
ЎршЬ `more`, тзрТбо, Ёчогрвр, Чрзр `only`, etc.

293. Adverbs of affirmation and Negation are:
иры,ёру, иры ёру, ёру иры, Рр, Рриуь and ЩрГр

иры is the simple affirmative `yes`,
ёру is the polite form, and
ёру иры is polite emphatic.
ЎгрдЪр or ёрЭЬ or тРрдµрЪр `certainly, surely, undoubtedly,» are also affirmatives
©Ъррчь Рриуь? `why not`, тТоЬ ? `then ?`, тТоЬ ©Ърр ? or ЎршЬ ©Ърр? `what else?` are similarly emphatic, the last three being informal and colloquial. Of the three negative Adverbs, Рриуь can be used, the polite form being ёру Рриуь or Рриуь ёру (slightly emphatic).
©Ърр РрршЁоЬ ЎрЪрр ? ёру Рриуь (Рриуь ёру).
Рриуь Гррч !: is used as an emphatic negative reply, denoting surprise, disapproval etc. ©Ърр ГрфЩрРрч ЩрчЬу тЁоГррЧр вру иш ? Рриуь Гррч! `have you taken my book?` `No indeed!` See :-(c) Гррч is emphatic, sometimes denoting contrast:
гри ЎрЪрр Гррч иш `he has come`,
Сриврч Щрф»рч ёррРрч Гррч Зрч `first let me go`,
ЬрЩр Ёорч Гррч ЧрфвррЎрч `call Ram` or `just call Ram`,
тЁоГррЧр Гррч тЩрвру, ЁоврЩр Рриуь `the book was found, (but) not the pen`,
гри ЩрчЬч Сррзр Гррч ЎрЪрр, СрЬ Чррчврр `he did come near me, but did not speak`.
Рриуь
As a negative Adverb (293-b-ii). For the adverbial Гррч, зрчч 285-m; for conjunctive Гррч,
In negative sentence, Рриуь is used in the Indicative and the Presumptive moods only: Щршь Рриуь ±рЪрр, Щршь Рриу ёрр¤ы±рр, ±ри Рриуь ±рЪрр ирч±рр etc. But Грх Рриуь ёрр¦ (Oprative) and Грх Рриуь ёрр (Imperative) etc. are wrong. In the negative present and present perfect forms, иш is usually omitted: гри Рриуь ёррГрр| ЁоршРр ЎрЪрр иш? Ёорчэб Рриуь ЎрЪрр. In the progressive forms, however, иш is not omitted: гри Рриуь ёрр Ьир иш. See:- The negative forms are made with the help of the particle Рриуь placed immediately before the Verb. But in the negative sentence иш, ишь, etc.are, as a rule, omitted:
гри Рриуь ёррГрр `he does not go`,

ЬрЩр зЁховр Щрчь Рриуь СрБяГрр, ірЬ СрЬ СрБяГрр иш `Ram does not study in a school, he studies at home. `

ЩрГр is used only in the Imperative and is somewhat curt. As a mild prohibitive, Рр is more idiomatic. In the Optative, Рр is almost exclusively the choice:
Грх ЩрГр ёрр, ГрфЩр ЩрГр ёррЎрч, ЎрСр Рр ёррэ¦ (Imperative);
гри Рр ёрр¦, Щршь Рр ёрр¤ы (Optative). Рр....Рр `neither......nor` as a conjunction (302-a-ii) is common for all tenses and moods, Рриуь and ЩрГр are not used in this sense. Рр Ёорчэб ЎрЪрр Рр ±рЪрр; Грх Рр ЗршАя, Рр ®рчвр, зррч ёрр. Рр is used as the final word in an Interrogative sentence to denote affirmation, or when an affirmative answer is expected:
ЎрСр ЩрчЬч зррЖр µрврчь±рч Рр ? `you will come with me, won`t you ?`. иры, Рриуь (or Ррриуь), Рр (or Ррр) are also used as Nouns, usually feminine:

ЩршьРрч иры ЁоЬ Зу `I accepted`, (lit, `I said `yes`)»,
ЩршьРрч Рриуь ЁоЬ Зу `I refised` (lit. `I said `no`)».

PARTICLES

Besides the Verb- (or Adverb-) modifying Adverbs, which usually precede the Verb they modify but can (if necessary) be separated from it, there are a number of adverbial words of a subsidiary nature, which are attached to a particular word inthe seentence for denoting emphasis, contrast etc., and invariably follow it. These are called `Particles`. They can usually be attached to any word in the sentence.

The more important Hindi particles are the following:

иу denotes either emphasis or is equivalent of `alone` (as in `you alone`, `he alone` etc.) :
ЬрЩр иу ЎрЪрр иш `to be sure, it is Ram who has come` or `Ram alone (only) has come`.
Pronouns and pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs combined with иу have already been discussed (118-29, 284). For ЎрСр иу (used both as an Adjective and as an Adverbs combined with иу have already been discussed (118-29, 284). For ЎрСр иу (used both as an Adjective and as an Adverb), see :- Of these, ЎрСр (occasionally followed by иу) [294 (a)] has an adjectival (intensifying) force and qualifies a Noun or Pronoun which it usually follows, and which, as a rule, is the logical subject of the sentence. See, however, (ii) below.

ЬрЩр ЎрСр (иу) грирь ±рЪрр Жрр `Ram himself had gone there`;

Щрф»рч ЎрСр иу ёррРрр СрАяч±рр `I shall have to go myself`;

грч ЎрСр (иу) Ўр¦ь±рч `they themselves will come`;

ЬрЩр ЎрСр Шрх®рр иш `Ram is himself hungry`;

ЈзрРрч ЎрСр иу Ъри Срлр твр®рр иш `he himself has written this letter`.

Further uses of иу will be illustrated by the following sentences:
ЩрчЬч ЎрГрч иу µррчЬ Шрр±р ±рЪрр `as soon as I came, the thief ran away`,
Щршь ёрр иу Ьир Жрр `I was just leaving`,
Щршь ёрр¤ы±рр иу `I will go`,
Щршь ±рЪрр иу ` I did go`,
Ъри ЁорЩр Ўрёр иу ЁоЬРрр ирч±рр `this work will have to be done to-day`,
ЎрСр Ёшозрч ишь? Ўµ¶р иу ихь `how are you ?` `Fairly well, (possibly),»
ЈзрРрч дрЬЧрГр ©Ърр тСрЪрр, ЧррчГрвр `he didn`t just drink Sherbat, he emptied
иу ®ррвру ЁоЬ Зу (drained ) the bottle itself (the entire bottle)»,
Ёфо¶ иу тЗРррчь Щрчь `in a very few days`,
Ёфо¶ ЎршЬ иу `something quite different`. Шру = `also`. But note the following special uses:
Щршь гриры ±рЪрр Шру ЎршЬ ЁорЩр Шру Рриуь ЧрРрр `in spite of my going there, I did not succeed`,
ГрфЩр ёррЎрч±рч Шру Ърр Чршїч иу Ьирч±рч ` will you go or just keep sitting ?`,
ёррРрч Шру Зрч or ЬиРрч Шру Зрч `do let it go (be), (it is not worthwhile)».
Шру = `even` in such sentences as -
гри Ъриры ЎрЪрр Шру Рриуь `he did not even come here`.
Ёорчэб Шру `anyone`, ёррч Шру `whosoever (relative), Ёфо¶ Шру = `anything`, Ъррчь Шру `even thus`, `even otherwise`, тТоЬ Шру `yet eveb so` (conjunction 302-b-ii), ЎЧр Шру `even now`, ГрЧр Шру `even then, even so`, (conjunction 302-b-ii), ЎЧр Шру `even now`, ГрЧр Шру `even then, even so`, ёрЧр Шру `whensoever`, ёриры Шру `whersoever` (relative), Ёоиуь Шру `anywhere`, ёриры Ёоиуь Шру `in any place whatsoever` etc.(See:- The suffixes (or particles) Щррлр and ШрЬ when attached to Nouns denoting time, signify `only` and `the whole....` respectively (294-e-f).

Thus-
крВр Щррлр `just a moment`, тЗРр ШрЬ `the whole day`,
ЬрГр ШрЬ `the whole night`, ірВѕч ШрЬ `one whole hour`.
крВр ШрЬ and Срвр ШрЬ, however, are synonymous with крВр Щррлр. These Nouns can be used as Adverbs without attaching Ёорч:
гри ЬрГр ШрЬ ЁорЩр ЁоЬГрр иш `he works the whole night`,
But, гри ЬрГр Ёорч ЁорЩр ЁоЬГрр иш `he works at night`,
ГрфЩр тЗРр ШрЬ Ёоиры Ьич? `where were you the whole day?`,
крВр Щррлр (or крВр ШрЬ) Ърирь ЭЁорч `stop here (for) a moment`.
Зчдр ШрЬ `the entire country`, ірЬ ШрЬ `the whole day`,
ЬрГр ШрЬ `the whole night`, тЗРр ШрЬ `the whole day`,
крВр ШрЬ `just a moment`.
гри эГрРрр ШрЬ ЁоЬ Зч `let him do obly (just) this much`,
ГрфЩрРрч СрБяр ШрЬ иш, ±рфРрр Рриуь `you have only read, not studied`.
In the two sentences, ШрЬ can be replaced by иу. See :- ШрЬ is, in fact, the Absolutive (243) of the root `to fill`:

Щрфѕюїу ШрЬ = Щрфѕюїу ШрЬ ЁоЬ filling the handful`,
±рёр ШрЬ = ±рёр ШрЬ ЁоЬ filling (stretching) a yard measure` etc.

The meaning `entire, whole` (and `only`) has evolved out of `filling, full`. It could, like the English-ful, be regarded as a suffix but for the fact that it is still felt as a separate word, and can, besides, be attached to Adjectives and Verbs, as well as to Nouns (and be synonymous with иу) cf. 294-e.

Щррлр is a Sanskrit suffix (originally the noun Щррлрр `measurement`) denoting `only` or `whole`. In Sanskrit, it used to be attached to or tagged on to the main word:

тРртЩрДрЩррлр `just an agent or cause`, тгрМррЩррлр `only learning`, крВрфЩррлр `just a moment`, тгрдгрЩррлр `the entire universe`, ЩррРргрЩррлр `the entire humanity`,
Hoowever, in Hindi, Щррлр has now come into use as an equivalent of Ёчогрвр `only` or иу `only`, `alone` and as a seprate word: Срµррзр ЭСр¦ Щррлр `Rupees fifty only`. Now it is also used before the main word:
Щррлр Щршь гриры Рриуь ±рЪрр `only, I did not go there`.

ШрЬ is, in fact, the Absolutive (243) of the root `to fill`:

Щрфѕюїу ШрЬ = Щрфѕюїу ШрЬ ЁоЬ filling the handful`,
±рёр ШрЬ = ±рёр ШрЬ ЁоЬ filling (stretching) a yard measure` etc.

The meaning `entire, whole` (and `only`) has evolved out of `filling, full`. It could, like the English-ful, be regarded as a suffix but for the fact that it is still felt as a separate word, and can, besides, be attached to Adjectives and Verbs, as well as to Nouns (and be synonymous with иу) cf. 294-e.

Preposition is a word which indicates a relation between a Noun or a Pronoun and a Noun, Pronoun or Verb (66): A book for you; A bunch of flowers; Come with me. In Hindi, these words are placed after the Noun or Pronoun whose relation with another Noun etc. they denote. They may, therefore, be called post-positions. The case-signs Ррч, Ёорч, зрч etc. are Post-positions of a special nature (95).

The Post-positions are attached to a Noun or a Pronoun sually with the help of the case-sign Ёор (or-Ьр in the case of first and second person Pronouns and - Ррр in reflexive which are in the oblique form Ёчо (or -Ьч, -Ррч):

ЬрЩр Ёчо зррЖр `along with Ram`, ЩрчЬч Сррзр `with me` ЎСрРрч Сррзр `with me, with sombody`. The case-sign may sometimes be omitted: РрЗу (Ёчо) СррЬ `across the river`, Сруї (Ёчо) Сру¶ч, `behind the back`. A few Post-positions are attacned with the help of se: Щрф»р зрч Сриврч `before me`, ірЬ зрч ЧрриЬ `outside the house`. Some are attached directly : ЎРГр ГрЁо `till the end`.
(a) All Post-positions, except Ёор are, in fact, Adverbs: they limit the force fo the Verb as Adverbs do. The only difference between the two is that a Post-position modifies a Verb with the help of a Noun or a Pronoun, while an Adverb does it independently:

But in гри ЬрЩр Ёор Шррэб иш `he is Ram`s brother` etc., ЬрЩр Ёор is adjectival.

In Hindi, a Noun or a Pronoun combined with a Post-position is often used as a Noun and can attach case-signs ;

In such cases, the Post-positions do not have an adverbial force.

Some of the important Post-positions are given below:
a.The following are used with Ёчо (or - Ьч) :-
ЎРЗЬ `within` (ірЬ Ёчо ЎРЗЬ) ЎРрфзррЬ `according to` (ЈзрЁчо ЎРрфзррЬ) Ўр±рч `facing, in front of, зррЩрРрч `in front of` (зрЧрЁчо зррЩрРрч) beyond` (ЩрчЬч Ўр±рч) Сру¶ч `behind` (ірЬ Ёчо Сру¶ч) ¤СрЬ `above, upon` (Щрчёр Ёчо ¤СрЬ) Рруµрч `below, under` (СрчАя Ёчо Рруµрчч) Сррзр `near, with` (зѕчдрРр Ёчо Сррзр, ЩрчЬч Сррзр) ЎрзрСррзр `around (дриЬ Ёчо ЎрзрСррзр) ШруГрЬ `within, in` (ЁоЩрЬч Ёчо ШруГрЬ)
Сриврч `before` (зррчРрч Ёчо Сриврч) ЧррЗ `after` (ЈїРрч Ёчо ЧррЗ)
СррЬ `across` (РрЗу Ёчо СррЬ) ирЖр or ОрЬр `through` (РрршЁоЬ Ёчо ирЖр, ОрЬр) твр¦ or гррзГрч `for` (тЁозрЁчо твр¦) тзргрр or тзргррЪр `except` (ЩрчЬч тзргррЪр) тЧрРрр `without`, (ЈзрЁчо тЧрРрр) ЎтГртЬ©ГрРр or Ўврргрр `besides` (ПрРр Ёч ЎтГртЬ©Гр) ЧрЗврч `instead of` (зрф®р Ёчо ЧрЗврч) ЧрЬрЧрЬ `equal` (ЩрчЬч ЧрЬрЧрЬ)тгрЭК `against` (тРрЪрЩр Ёчо тгрЭК) Ъррч±Ър or вррЪрЁо `worthy` (ГрфЩирЬч Ъррч±Ър, вррЪрЁо)тгрСрЬуГр `contrary to` (эзрЁчо тгрСрЬуГр) зррЖр `with (ЩрчЬч зррЖр)Ъриры ` (live) with or, `at the place ЁорЬВр `because of` (ЩрчЬч ЁорЬВр) of` (ЩрчЬч Ърирь `at the place) ЧррЬч Щрчь `about, concerning` (СрБяРрч Ёчо ЧррЬч Щрчь). ЩррЬч `on account of` (Шрх®р Ёчо ЩррЬч)

The following have Ёоу instead of Ёчо:-
ЎрчЬ or ГрЬТо `towards` (грРр Ёоу ЎрчЬ) ШррштГр or ГрЬи `like` (ЩрчЬу ГрЬи) ®рртГрЬ `for the sake of` (ЩрчЬу ®рртГрЬ) ЎСрчкрр or ЧртРрзЧрГр `in comparison to` (ПрРр Ёоу ЎСрчкрр). The following have a зрч:-
Сриврч `before (also Ёчо) (зрЧрзрч Сриврч) ЧрриЬ `outside` (also Ёчо)
ЗхЬ `far` (дриЬ зрч ЗхЬ) (дриЬ Ёчо ЧрриЬ). The following are attached directly :-
СрЪрбРГр or ГрЁо `upto, until` Грврч `under` (тµрЬр±р Грврч)
(ёругрРр СрЪрбРГр, Ёовр ГрЁо) СррЬ `across` (also with Ёчо) ОрЬр `through` (also with Ёчо) (зрЩрфН СррЬ) (дрзлр ОрЬр). The following are attached directlyto эзр, Јзр, тёрзр, тЁозр, usually when referring to `things`:-

The Post-positions ЩррЬч, тЧрРрр and тзргрр (Ър) are sometimes used, for the sake of emphasis, before the Noun which they govern:-

Conjunctions are words which join together or connect words, sentences, or Parts of a sentence (67): Mother and child came. (2) Is it good or bad? (3) I came, but you had gone. (4) you said that you would come. (5) The servant will wait until you come.

It is, however, not often that a conjunction connects two words, sentences, `mother came` and `child came` which have been contracted into one for the sake of economy. Similarly, `is it good or bad` is contracted from `isit good` and `is it bad`. Only in sentences like, `put two and two together`, or `Sita and Kamla are cousin` can a conjuntion be said to connect two words. In the third example, `I came but you had gone`, the two smaller sentences are independent of each other. In the fourth sentence, however, `you would come` is subordinate to `you said`, since it functions as the object of `said`. In the last sentence, `until you come` is subordinate sentences so the main sentences to the main sentence are called Subordinating. `and`, `or`, and `but` in the above examples are Co-ordinating; `that` and `until` are subordinating. Some of the important Hindi Conjunctions are given below:- Co-0rdinating ГрЖрр or ЎршЬ `and`; ¦грь (or ¦грЩрю) `as well as`; ЩрирГЩрр ±ррьПру Ррч зрГЪр ¦грь Ўтьизрр ЗрчРррчь Ёор ЈСрЗчдр тЗЪрр `Mahatma Gandhi preached truth as well as non-violence`. It is desirable to restrict the use of ¦грЩрю for `as well as` and not to use it as just a synonym of ЎршЬ.
Ърр or ЎЖргрр `or` тЁо `or` (colloquial); Рр.....Рр `neither....nor` (293-d): Рриуь Гррч (293-b& 294-c) or ЎЬ ЬЬ `otherwise, or else»; Ърр.............Ърр `either............or`; грр `or`;
µррич...........µррич `whether........or`, Рр тЁо ` (but)O not`:
ГрфЩрРрч ®ррРрр ®ррЪрр Ърр (ЎЖргрр) Рриуь ? `have you taken your food, or not ?`, ГрфЩр ёррГрч ирч тЁо Рриуь `are you going or not?` (colloquial),» Рр гри µррЪр СруГрр иш Рр ЁорщТоу `he takes neither tea nor coffee` ЩрчиРрГр ЁоЬрч ЎРЪрЖрр (Рриуь Гррч) `work hard, otherwise you will fail`, Тчовр ирч ёррЎрч±рч
Ърр ГрфЩр ёррЎрч Ърр Щршь `either you go or I (go)»,
µррич ГрфЩр Ьирч, µррич ёррЎрч... `whether you remain or go......`,
Щршь ЎСрРрч тЩрлр зрч тЩрврРрч ЎрЪрр ихы, `I have come to see my friend,
Рр тЁо ГрфЩрзрч not you`
грр `or` is now archaic.
СрЬ лрРГрф, тЁоРГрф, Щр±рЬ or врчтЁоРр `but`, СЯГЪрфГр or ЧртвЁо `but also, besides, but, on the other hand`;
ЩршьРрч ЎрСр Ёор Ёфо¶ тЧр±ррАр Рриуь, СЯГЪрфГр (ЧртвЁо) Шрврр иу тЁоЪрр иш
`I have done no charm to you; on the other hand, I have rendered you a service`.
ЧрЬРр `but` is now obsolete. эзртвр¦, ЎГр¦гр, ЎГр: `therefor, hence, consequently`; зррч `so` (archaic.)
a.Subordinating ©ЪррчьтЁо `because`; эзртвр¦....тЁо `so that, for the purpose that.....`:
Щршь Ърирь эзртвр¦ ЎрЪрр тЁо ЎрСрзрч ¦Ёо тЁоГррЧр Щрры±рх `I have come here so that I may ask you for a book`. ЪртЗ....Гррч `if .....then`, (285-m); ЪрМртСр `although`; Гррч Шру=тТоЬ Шру =`yet even so`; ЪрМртСр....ГрЖрртСр `though....yet`:
ЪртЗ ЎрСр µрричь, Гррч Щршь гриры ёрр зрЁоГрр ихы `I can go there if you so want`.
тЁо `that`; ЎЖррбГрю `that is` :
ЩршьРрч Јзрзрч Ёоир тЁо....`I told him that.......`;
`зргрбРррЩр` ЎЖррбГрю иЩр, Грх ГрфЩр ЎртЗ `pronouns`, i.e. we, thou, you etc.

An Interjection is a word expressing some emotion (pain, pleasure, anger, surprise, dislike, disgust etc.): Oh! Alas ! An Interjection, like a noun in the vocative case (102), has no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. It is, in fact, a sentence in itself. (Oh ! = `I am surprised`, or `It is surprising`).

In Hindi, most of the Interjections are used as independent words. Some, however, are prefixed to a Noun in the vocative case. (See : The vocative form is identical with the oblique, except that in the plural, Ўрчь loss its nasalization. There are no case-signs but certain Interjections (Ўрч) врАяЁчо ! Boy!` (Ўрч) врАяЁорч `Boys!`

(¦) врАяЁоу ! Girl!` (Ўрч) врАятЁоЪррч `Girls!`

ич эбдгрЬ ! `O God!` ЎЬч Рруµр `O wretch!`.

But µррµрр! `Uncle!` ЗрЗр ! `Grandpa! etc. do not change.

Note: The nasalized (-Ўрчь) forms should never be used for vocative plural, as is sometimes done by careless writers.):

ич Шр±ргррРрю ! O God!` Ўрч врАяЁчо ! `Boy!`.

The following are the more important interjections in Hindi: Ўрчи ! ЎЬч ! Ўрчирч ! ишь ! ©Ърр ! (surprise)
грри ! дррЧррдр ! ®рхЧр ! ПрРЪр ! (applause)
ирЪр ! ир ! Ўри ! дррчЁо ! ЎрчТо ! (sorrow, grief)ЈТо ! ЎТозррчзр !
Ўрир ! Ўир ! грри-грри ! (joy)
т¶:! Жрх ! тПр©ЁорЬ ! (disgust-disapproval)
ирЪр Ьч ! ЗшЪрр Ьч ! (distress.)

Certain nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are also used as interjections:
Noun:- ЬрЩр ! ЬрЩр ! (sympathy or disapproval)
ЧррСр Ьч ЧррСр ! (surprise or distress)
Adjective:- Ўµ¶р ! (surprise)
Pronoun:- ©Ърр ! (surprise)
Verb:- µрвр иѕ ! (rebuke)
ЩрЬр Ьч ! (distress) Some of the interjections can be used as nouns:

In the first Person plural, feminine forms of verbs are now getting obsolete. Now-a-days, women speak of themselves as иЩр ёррГру ишь, иЩр ЁоЬчь±ру, иЩр ±рэбь etc. In the singular, however, the Verb has the singular forms Щршь ёррГру ихы, Щршь ЁоЮы±ру, Щршь ±рэб etc.

The usage has naturally affected Adjectives also, and in some places, it is no longer usual for women to say иЩр Ўµ¶у ишь (`we are all right`, or, `we are doing well`). They would rather say иЩр Ўµ¶ч ишь.

This usage (or reluctance of women to retain indistinctive feminine Gender with rreference to themselves !) has further resulted in their preference for Plural over Singular of the first Person Pronoun, since Masculine forms of Sinngular Verbs (Щршь ёррГрр ихы etc.) are, at present, confined strictly to Masculinc Subjects. A modern woman would, thus, speak of herself as иЩр ёррГрч ишь rather than as Щршь ёррГру ихы.

NUMBER

With Nouns, the honorific plural (78-a) is restricted to the direct case, and even so only Masculine - Ўр Nous of the type врАяЁор (80-b) have the Plura forms.

Thus, speaking of a single person, we can say ЈРрЁчо Чрчѕч Ўр¦ ишь `his son has come`; but not ЈРрЁчо Чрчѕрчь Ёорч ЧрфвррЎрч which would mean, `call their sons`. For a single son, we can only say ЈРрЁчо Чрчѕч Ёорч ЧрфвррЎрч, whether we `honour` the son or not. ЈРрЁчо Чрчѕч Чрфврр¦ ±р¦ `his son was called`, however, is all right, since hereЧрчѕч is in the direct case (the Verb being Passive).

Words like µррµрр, ЩррЩрр, ЗрЗр etc., of course, do not change (80-exceptions); only the Verbs and the Adjectives referring to them have the plural form:

ЩрчЬч ¶рчѕч µррµрр Ўр¦ ишь `my younger uncle has come,.

Feminine nouns, similarly, remain unchanged, the Verb alone being in the plural ЩрчЬу ЩррГрр (not ЩррГрр¦ы) Ўрэб ишь `my mother has come`; ЈРрЁоу врАяЁоу (not врАятЁоЪрры) ЁоиГру ишь `his daughter says`.

The Pronouns referring to any Noun in honorific plural have the regular plural forms: Ърч ЩрчЬч µррµрр ишь `this is my uncle`,

грч ЩрчЬу ЧрАяу ЧртиРр ишь `she is my elder sister`.

ЬржѕаСртГр Ёовр Ъриры Ўр Ьич ишь, ЈРрЁчо згрр±рГр Ёоу ГршЪрртЬЪрры ирч Ьиу ишь `the President is arriving here to-morrow. Preparations for his welcome are afoot`.

Ёорч (97)

(a) A pronoun referring to a person, when used as an object always attaches Ёорч or its equivalents -¦ or - ишь. We can say ЬрЩр Ррч гри врАяЁор Зч®рр (objectival construction) or ЬрЩр Ррч Јзр врАяЁчо Ёорч Зч®рр (neutral construction). But we cannot say ЬрЩр Ррч гри Зч®рр. When гри refers to врАяЁор etc., we must say ЬрЩр Ррч Јзрч (ЈзрЁорч) Зч®рр. This is due to the fact that Јзрч or ЈзрЁорч refers is to a particular being. Consequently, ЬрЩр Ррч гри врАяЁор Зч®рр is slipshod.

(b) СрГЖрЬрчь Ёорч ТчьоЁо тЗЪрр ±рЪрр, ЩрЁорРррчь Ёорч т±рЬр тЗЪрр ёрр¦ etc. are formal or affected, though frequently met with. Inanimate objects had better be used without Ёорч (СрГЖрЬ ТчоьЁо тЗ¦ ±р¦, ЩрЁорРр т±рЬр тЗ¦ ёрр¦ы) except with Transitive Verbs of incomplete predication, such as, СрГЖрЬрчь Ёорч иуЬр ЧрРрр тЗЪрр ±рЪрр, ЩрЁорРррчь Ёорч »ррчьСртАяЪрр ЩррРр тврЪрр ±рЪрр.

With Nouns denoting time, both Ёорч and Щрчь are used. Ёорч is generally attached when the Noun denotes a point of time and Щрчь when it denotes a period.

Ёорч = `at` and Щрчь = `during`.

Ёорч and Щрчь may both be omiotted iwhen the Noan is qualified:

But тЗРр Щрчь ЎрЎрч, тЗРр Ёорч ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр ЁоЬрч. Ёорч is, however, not omitted with Nouns denoting days of the week or dates:

зррчЩргррЬ Ёорч, Сррьµр ГррЬу®р Ёорч etc.

(a) Ёорч (-¦, -ичь) is regularly attached to an object receiving greetings, homage, salute, thanks, congratulations, censure, etc. (with or without a Verb requiring two objects):

±рфЮ Ёорч СЯВррЩр, ЎрСрЁорч ЧрПррэб, эбдгрЬ Ёорч ПрРЪргррЗ, тПр©ЁорЬ иш ГрфЩичь!

(b) Ёорч (-¦, -ичь) is also attached for denoting concern, gain, loss etc. to a person (cf 266).

ГрфЩичь эзрзрч ©Ърр ЩрГрврЧр ! `how are you concerned with this?,»

ЎрСрЁорч ©Ърр СрАяу иш ? `why do you bother ?,»

ЬрЩр Ёорч вррШр ифЎр иртРр ифэб `Ram gained, lost`.

зрч (98)

зрч denotes cause in Чрµµрр ЁфоДрч зрч АЬГрр иш, and association in ЬргрВр ЬрЩр зрч врАяр or ЩррчиРр Щрф»рзрч тЩрврр. ЁфоДрр, ЬрЩр and Щршь in these sentences are not objects (towards which action is directed), although in the corresponding English sentences `the child fears the dogs`, `Ravana fought Ram`, and `Mohan met me`, dog, Ravana and me would be treated as objects.

Ёор (101)

A Noun or Pronoun + Ёор and the corresponding forms of ЩрчЬр, ГрчЬр etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- Ўр).

ЬрЩр Ёоу тЁоГррЧр is `Ram-owned book`, and

зррчРрч Ёор ЁоАяр is `gold-made bangle`.

It is due to the adjectival nature of these Ёор, Ьр forms that they change to Ёоу, Ьу, Ёчо and Ьч as all -Ўр ending adjectives do.

315. A peculiar use of Ёор, Ьр, in its oblique form Ёчо, Ьч, is met with in such sentences as:-

¦Ёо Ьрёрр Ёчо ГруРр ЬртРрЪрры Жруь `a king had three queens`,

ЩрчЬч ¦Ёо ЧртиРр иш `I have one sister`.

These Ёчо or Ьч forms are, obviously, not adjectival: the Nouns following them are Feminine. They denote, like the English `have`, experience of the existence of `queens` and `sister` as related to `king` and `I`. This emphasis is not upon the relationship or possession, but upon the fact that they exist. (we can perhaps supply words like ірЬ Щрчь, Сррзр, Ъриры after Ьрёрр Ёчо, ЩрчЬч etc.) ¦Ёо Ьрёрр Ёоу ГруРр ЬртРрЪрры Жруь, on the other hand, empgasises the relationship and would mean `there were three queens living with or married to a king`.

Щрф»рч, Щрф»рЁорч (114)

With pronouns, the Ёорч forms and Ёорч, a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as Щрф»р ЗуРр Ёорч Рр зрГррэ¦, ЈРр вррч±ррчь Ёорч Ъриры ЧрфвррЎрч. (127), -¦ or -ичь forms cannot be used.

ЎСрРрр (120Ѕр

ЎСрРрр (reflexive, like ГрчЬр, ЩрчЬр, ГрфЩирЬр, ЈзрЁор etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with Ррч, or зрч (in Passive Voice), or with Ёорч (266-70).

In the direct case and oblique with Ррч, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: Щршь ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр ЁоЬГрр ихь, ЩршьРрч ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр тЁоЪрр:

A logical subject in the oblique with Ёорч or зрч is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object:

Щрф»рЁорч (Щрф»рч) ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр Ўµ¶р вр±рГрр иш,

Щрф»рзрч ЎСрРрр ЁорЩр Рриуь ирчГрр.

In all the four sentences, ЎСрРрр has replaced ЩрчЬр because Щршь (the person referred to by ЩрчЬр) is the logical subject in all the four.

But in a sentence like Щрф»рзрч ЩрчЬч Шррэб Ррч Ёоир, ЩрчЬч cannot be replaced by ЎСрРрч because Шррэб is the subject here and not Щршь.

Irregular or loose use of ЎСрРрр is met with in such sentences as Јзрч ЎСрРрч ірЬ Шрчёр Зрч or Јзрч ЈзрЁчо ірЬ Шрчёр Зрч `send him to his house.` The former sentence could also mean `send him to your house`, which is really its correct signification, since ЎСрРрч must refer to the implied subject `you`. ЎСрРрр is sometimes used for denoting ГрфЩирЬр (or ГрчЬр)=+иЩррЬр (or ЩрчЬр) in such sentences as:-

Ъри ЩрЁорРр ЎСрРрр иу иш `this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in ЎСрРрр either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying Ъри ЩрЁорРр ЎрСрЁор иу иш for Ъри ЩрЁорРр ЩрчЬр иш.

Progressive Aspect (170-2)

The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr ёррРрРрр `toknow` has no progressive forms since `know` denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on``. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form.

The Present Tense (188)

(a) The terminate forms of the present may refer to Immediate Future:

Щршь ЎШру СрьНи тЩрРрѕ Щрчь ёррГрр ихы `I (shall) leave within fifteen minutes` etc.

The progressive form can similarly be used for Immediate Future:
Щршь ЎШру ёрр Ьир ихы `I am just going`.
It can also be used for Immediate Past:
Щршь ЎШру ЧрЩЧрэб зрч Ўр Ьир ихы `I am just coming from Bombay`.
The terminate form should not be used in this sense (Immediate Past). A negative sentence with a Terminate Present may denote `unwillingness, refusal` etc.

Щршь Ъри Чррч»р Рриуь ЈїрГрр `I won`t lift this load`,
Щршь ЧррёррЬ Рриуь ёррГрр `I don`t like to go to the market`,
Ъри іррчАяр Рриуь µрврГрр `this horse won`t move`.

The Past Tense (194)

(a) The simple past can be used for Immediate Future:

ЎрСр µртвр¦, Щршь ЎШру ЎрЪрр `your proceed, I will follow you`.

(b) conditional sentences, the simple past refers to the future,usually implying some (certain and immediate) consequence:

ЪтЗ Грх грирь ±рЪрр, Гррч тСрѕч±рр `if you go there, you shall be thrashad`,
±ррАу Ўрэб ЎршЬ иЩр µрБч `we shall get in as soon as the train arrives.`

The simple past, when used as future conditional, may have the rare progerssive form ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc.
ЪртЗ гри дррЩр Ёорч ЎрГрр ифЎр, Гррч ©Ърр ирч±рр ? `what will happen if he is coming this
eveing ?`,
Щрш Ёовр Ззр Чрёрч Ўр¤ы±рр, Јзр зрЩрЪр ЪртЗ Грх зррчГрр ифЎр Ърр зррчГр тЩрврр Гррч зрёрр Срр¦±рр| `I will come to-morrow at ten o`clock; if you are sleeping (asleep) at that hour, you shall be punished [see In fact, Ўр Ьир is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound Ўр + ЬиРрр, and as equivalent to ЎрГрр ифЎр. This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like ЎрГрр ифЎр, ёррГрр ифЎр etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is ЎрГрр ифЎр. (322). and See : the Indicative Past has no progressive form - except the rare
conditional ЎрГрр ифЎр [262-d and 322-c]; ].
The Future form of ирчРрр `to be` may be used as a Presumptive (232-c): ирч±рр used as a remark or comment upon some statement may express indifference:
ЈзрЁчо Сррзр ЧрифГр Сршзрр иш - ирч±рр `he has a lot of money`, `what of it ?` or `what do I care?`

Present Perfect (207)

The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say врАяЁор ЎрЪрр иш `the boy has come` only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say врАяЁор Ёовр ЎрЪрр иш ЎршЬ Ўрёр µрврр ±рЪрр `the boy ``has come`` yesterday and went to-day` because the boy`s coming can no longer be related to the present: he is gone. Similarly, we can say ШррЬГр Щрчь ЎдррчЁо ёршзрч ЩрирРр Ьрёрр иф¦ ишь `there have been great kings like Ashok in India` because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say µрРН±рфСГр Ррч СррѕтврСрфлр Ёорч ЬрёрПррРру ЧрРррЪрр иш `Chandragupta ``has made`` Pataliputra his capital`, because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists.

It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past` (ЎрзрРРр ШрхГр) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action.

Habitual Past (212)

(a) The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It is neither ``Past Imperfect`` nor ``Progressive Past`` Nor can it, in modern Hindi, refer to a Particular action of the past, for which the simple past (or past progressive Ьир Жрр) must be used. It is not correct to say, for example, Ёовр ЬрЩр зЁховр ёррГрр Жрр. A few verbs, however, represent action as a fact complete in itself See:- The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr ёррРрРрр `toknow` has no progressive forms since `know` denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on``. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form. ), which consequently cannot be habitual. It is only in the case of such verbs that Past Habitual represents a particular action.

гри ёррРрГрр Жрр `he knew`. ёррРрГрр Жрр cannot mean `he used to know`. `knowing a thing` cannot be repeated!

The forms ёрр Ьир Жрр etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of ёррГрр Жрр form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. ёрр Ьир Жрр is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±рЪрр See:(a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used.

The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, and

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the Грр by Ьир:

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual.

Participles (239)

The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with иш and Жрр, ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a ифЎр is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d).

The Ьир progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ЗршАя Ьиу ±ррАяу `the running train` and т±рЬ Ьиу гржррб `the falling rain` are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary.

The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb is passive by nature. It represents an action as completed, and at the same time qualifies the object. (The past participle of an Intransitive Verb, which has no object, qualifies the subject). There is, thus, no need of a fresh passive forms with ±рЪрр or ифЎр (272-b) serrve only to make the passive sense more definite. ифЎр cna be attached to Intransitive Verbs also, but never ±рЪрр. The ±рЪрр in µрврр ±рЪрр (Intransitive) is not of passive origin. It is the past participle form of the Subsidiary Verb ёррРрр in the compound Verb µрврр ёррРрр `go away`.

In the Active Voice (with the subject acting) :- A subject is usually in the direct case, when the Verb must agree with it in Number, Gender and Perosn:
врАяЁор ЎрГрр иш, врАяЁоу Ўр¦±ру, ±ррЪр ±рэб, Чрµµрч зррчГрч ирчь±рч
This is Subjectival Construction. With a Transitive Verb having a past participle form, the subject is in the oblique case with Ррч, when the Verb agrees with the object:
врАяЁчо Ррч µррЪр Сру, ЁоЩрврр Ррч ЎрЩр ®рр¦
This is Objectival Construction. But if the object pf a verb with a past participle form has Ёорч or ¦, the verb is in the masculine singular, third person:
СЯёрр Ррч ЬрЩр Ёорч Ьрёр ЧрРррЪрр, иЩрРрч Јзрч РрршЁоЬ Ь®рр
This is Neutral Construction.

Note- (i) With a Transitive Verb of Incomplete Predication, the object always has Ёорч.
(ii) A Verb with two objects cannot be in the Neutral Construction. It must, in such cases, agree with the primary object: Щррщь Ррч РрршЁоЬ Ёорч ЭСр¦ тЗ¦
(iii) Pronouns may have - ¦ or - ичь instead of Ёорч.

A Verb can be in the Objectival or the Neutral Construction only if it has a past participle. Elsewhere, the Verb is always in the subjectival Construction, whether it is Transitive or Intransitive, complete or incomplete:

Щршь ®ррРрр ®ррГрр ихы, Ёоврр тЁоГррЧр СрБяч±ру, Щрры РрршЁоЬ Ёорч ЭСр¦ ЗчГру Жру

An Intransitive Verb is always in the Subjectival Construction even when it has a past participle.

ЬрЩр ЎрЪрр, врАяЁчо ЗршАяч, Товр т±рЬр

With Verbs denoting ``experience`` etc. (266-270), the subject always has Ёорч (or- ¦, - ичь in case of Pronouns); and the ``object of experience`` is in the direct case with which the Verb agrees:
Щрф»рч Шрх®р вр±ру иш, Јзрч ЧрифГр ЁорЩр иш, Чрµµрч Ёорч Згрр СруРру СрАяч±ру
A Verb of this class is always in the Objectival Construction.
In the Passive Voice:-
a. The logical subject (``doer``) , if mentioned, always has зрч; and the logical object (``that which is acted upon``) is in the direct case, with which the Verb agrees:

врАяЁчо зрч ЁорЩр Рриуь тЁоЪрр ёррГрр, ЁоЩрврр зрч Ьрчѕу Рриуь ®ррэб ёррГру

ЬргрВр ЩррЬр ±рЪрр (logical subject not mentioned). The construction thus, is Objectival.

Note- (i) In the passive voice, the logical object assumes the role of the grammatical subject (``that about which something has been said``).

It cannot, of course, replace the logical subject - `` the doer``.

The logical subject is usually mentioned only if abiliity or inability to do something is implied. Only a Transitive Verb can be in the Passive Voice. If a Verb has two objects, the Verb agrees with the primary object, the secondary object being in the oblique case:
РрршЁоЬ Ёорч ГруРр ЭСр¦ тЗ¦ ±р¦.
The construction is Objectival, with the logical subject omitted. With the Verbs ЁоиРрр, Срф¶Ррр, Щрры±рРрр etc., the secondary object has зрч: Щрф»рзрч Ёоир ёррГрр иш, Јзрзрч Срх¶р ±рЪрр (98-Чр).
With Verbs of incomplete predication in the passive Voice, the object usually has Ёорч (or-¦, -ичь) and the Verb is always in the third person singular masculine form:
ЩррчиРр Ёорч Срр±рвр Ёоир ±рЪрр, ЩрЁорРр Ёорч »ррчьСртА ЩррРрр ±рЪрр.
the construction, thus, is Neutral. Neutral construction is met with also in other Verbs, especially if the object is a Pronoun:
Јзрч ЁорчАрчь зрч Сруѕр ±рЪрр, Щрф»рч ЧрЩЧрэб ЧрфвррЪрр ±рЪрр иш. With the ``true passive `` (274), the object is always in the direct case, which the Verb agrees. The subject. if mentioned, has зрч: СрчАя Ёоѕ Ьир иш, тЁоГррЧрчь тЧрЁчьо±ру, Щрф»рзрч Ъри ЗЬгррёрр Рриуь ®рфврГрр, врАяЁчо зрч ЁоврЩр ѕхѕ ±рэб. The construction is Objectival.
Note - (i) The subject, where mentione, is either ``able`` or ``unable`` to do something, or does something unintentionally as in the last sentence, or as in Щрф»рзрч Шрхвр ирч ±рэб.
(ii) All ``true passive`` are Intransitive in form, but Transitive in sense. In their active form, they change into Verbs.
РрршЁоЬ СрчАя ЁорѕГрр иш, Щршь тЁоГррЧрчь ЧрчµрГрр ихы (274-b). All passive have eighte the objectival, or the neutral construction. They can never be in the subjectival construction : the Verb never agrees with the logical subject (or, to put in other words, the logical subject, of a passive is never in the direct form).

In the Impersonal Voice (278) the Verb is always in the third person singular masculine form, and the subject if mentioned, has зрч:
µрвррч зррчЪрр ёрр¦, Щрф»рзрч Рриуь Јїр ёррГрр. This is the Neutral Construction.
Note:- (i) Only Intransitive Verbs can be in the Impersonal Voice.
(ii) In the Impersonal Voice, the Verb is always in the neutral construction.
(a) All Verbs having a present or past participle form are affected by the Number, Person and Gender of the subject or of the object.
(b) Othe forms of Verbs are affected by only the number and Person of the subject or of the object.
(c) All Verbs, when they are in the neutral construction, are in the third person singular masculine form Two or More Subjects
(a) If a sentence has two or more subjects, the Verb is in the Plural:
ЬрЩр ЎршЬ вркЩрВр Ўр¦ ишь; ЁоЩрврр ЎршЬ ЬрПрр µрвру ±рэб.
(b) The Gender of such a Verb is feminine only if all the subjects are Feminine. If the subjects are living beings, and one of them is Masculine, the Verb is also masculine:
ЬрЩр ЎршЬ зруГрр грРр Ёорч µрврч; ЬрПрр, ЁоЩрврр ЎршЬ ЩррчиРр Ўр Ьич ишь; врАяЁчо ЎршЬ врАятЁоЪррь ®рчвр Ьич иш.
(c) If all the subjects are inanimate things and singular, the Verb again agrees with the masculine:
¦Ёо зѕхвр ЎршЬ Щрчёр Ь®рч ишь; вррчѕр ЎршЬ Жррвру Ь®рч ишь.
(d) Elsewhere, the Verb agrees with the nearest Subject:
Товр ЎршЬ тЩрїрэбЪрры Ь®ру ишь; ЖрртврЪрры ЎршЬ т±рвррзр Ь®рч ишь
It is usual to `sum up` the two or more subjects by the words ЗрчРррчь (both) and зрЧр (all) placed after the subjects, in which case the Verb is Masculine (unless, of course, all the subjects are Feminine) :
Товр ЎршЬ тЩрїрэбЪрры ЗрчРррчь тЩрврГрч ишь; Чрµµрч, ЧрфАюБяч, ёргррРр зрЧр µрврч; ЁоЩрврр ЎршЬ ЬрПрр ЗрчРррчь Ўрэб ишь; ЁоЩрврр, ЬрПрр ЎршЬ вркЩру зрЧр µрвру ±рэб
If the subjects are itwo or more Pronouns in different persons, the `order of Preference` for the Verb is first-second-third:
Щршь ЎршЬ ГрфЩр (or ГрфЩр ЎршЬ Щршь) µрврчь±рч (first person plural); Щршь, ГрфЩр ЎршЬ гри µрврчь±рч (first person plural); ГрфЩр ЎршЬ гри ёрр Ьич ирч (second person plural).
Gendedr follows the same rules as in the case of Nouns.
The above rules hold good also when the Verb agrees with the object (i.e. in the objectival construction):
ЩршьРрч ¦Ёо т±рвррзр ЎршЬ ¦Ёо Жррвру ®рЬуЗу; µррчЬ Ррч ¦Ёо т±рвррзр ЎршЬ ГруРр ЖрртврЪрры µрфЬрэб
The Verb agrees with the subject (in the direct case) even if there is a predicative word referring to it, which has another Gender.
ГрфЩирЬу Щрх®рбГрр Рррдр Ёор ЁорЬВр ирч±ру; вркЩруЧррэб згрЪрь зрчРррСртГр ЧрРру

The normal order of words in a senternce is as follows:- Intransitive Verbs
(i) Subject Verb
врАяЁор ЎрЪрр
(ii) Subject Predicative word Verb
ЩррчиРр µрГрфЬ иш Transitive Verbs-
(i) Subject Object Verb
врАяЁор Товр ®ррГрр иш
(ii) Subject Object Predicative word Verb referring to the Object
Ьрёрр Ррч ЩррчиРр Ёорч Щрьлру ЧрРррЪрр Transitive Verbs with two objects
Subject Secondary object Primary object Verb

Щррь Ррч РрршЁоЬ Ёорч ЭСр¦ тЗ¦

Adjectives are placed immediately before the Noun which they qualify (except, of course, when they are used as Predicative words) : ¶рчѕр врАяЁор ЎрЪрр; Щрры Ррч ЧрфАюБяч РрршЁоЬ Ёорч Сррыµр ЭСрЪр тЗ¦ But ЩррчиРр ЧрифГр µрГрфЬ иш
Nouns having Ёор and Pronouns having -Ьр are adjectival and are placed immediately befoer the related Noun, or before its Adjective, if there is one:
ЬрЩр Ёор ¶рчѕр Шррэб ЎрЪрр : ЩршРрч ГрфЩирЬу (Ррэб) тЁоГррЧр СрБяу But Ъри тЁоГррЧр ЬрЩр Ёоу иш (Predicative). Adverbs are usually placed before the Verb:
ЬрЩр Ъриры ЬиГрр иш,
ЎРррёр ЎРЗЬ Ь®ррч Nouns having зрч and denoting means, instrument etc., or separation precede the object.
µррЁхо зрч Товр Ёорѕрч,
гри ЧррёррЬ зрч Товр вррЪрр Nouns having Щрчь or СрЬ are usually placed before the Verb (or before a predicative word, if any):
ЩрчЬр ірЬ дриЬ Щрчь иш,
тЁоГррЧр Щрчёр СрЬ иш,
ірЬ ¦Ёо зррвр Щрчь ГршЪррЬ ифЎр. Рриуь, Рр and ЩрГр are generally placed immediately before the Verb:
гри ЁорЩр Рриуь ЁоЬГрр,
ЎрСр гриры Рр ёррэ¦,
Ёоµµрч Товр ЩрГр ®ррЎрч.
But sometimes otherwise as well: Јзрч ¶фРрр ЩрГр; гри ЁорЩр Гррч ЁоЬГрр Рриуь. The particles иу, Гррч, Шру etc. are placed after the word which they emphasize:

A word shifted from its normal position qcquires emphasis:

The interrogative ©Ърр is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Rhetorically, or for the sake of emphasis, ©Ърр may be placed immediately after the subject or at the end of the sentence:

Prefixes are subsidiary words (prepositions and particles) which are, as a rule, not used independently, but modify the meaning of a word (usually Noun or an Adjective), when attached to it in the beginning. Thus-

±рфВр = `virtue`, but Ўгр±рфВр = `fault defect`,
ЗрРр = `giving`, but ЎрЗрРр = `taking`,
СЯтзрК = `famous`, but зрфСЯтзрК = `very famous`,
Щррчвр = `value or price, but ЎРрЩррчвр = `priceless`,
тЗРр = `day` but СЯтГртЗРр = `every day, daily`.

Nouns, Adjectives other words to which a perfix has thus been attached are included among Compounds
(Appendix III). They are discussed here for the sake of convenience.

Most of the perfixes in use in Hindi are Tatsama, a few are Tadbhave, while others have been borrowed form Aeabic or persain.

The more important perfixes and compounds formed with their help are listed below. The compounds marked as A are Adverbial (App III, 13) and those marked as P are Possessive (App III, 15).

Tatsama Prefixes
1.Ў denotes `negation` or `lack`:
РЪррЪр `justice`, ЎРЪррЪр `injustice`
ерРр `knowledge`, Ўтиьзрр `non-violence`, `non-injury`,
ЁоврьЁо `spot, blame`, ЎЁоврьЁо `spotless` (P).

This Ў is repleced by ЎРрх when attached to a word beginning with a vowel:
ЈтµрГр `pr oper`, ЎРрфтµрГр `improper`,
¦Ёо `one`, ЎРрчЁо `many`,
ЎртЗ `beginning`, ЎРрртЗ `without beginning`, (P)

(2)ЎтГр = `very`, `exceedingly`:
ЎтГр ЁоїрчЬ `very hard` ЎтГр ЁорчЩрвр `very delicate`,
ЎтГрЗфЧрбвр `exceedingly weak`, ЎГЪрфЗрЬ (ЎтГр +ЈЗрЬ) `very
generous`.
(4) ЎРрф = `following`, `after`, `according to`, `similar to`:
ЎРрф±рЩрРр `following`, ЎРрфЁоЬВр `imitation`,
(±рЩрРр `going`), (ЁоЬВр `doing`),
ЎРрфЮСр `similar, worthy of` (P), ЎРрфгррЗ `translation`,
(ЭСр form`) (гррЗ `speaking`).

(5) ЎСр = `contrary`, `lacking`, `away`:
ЎСрЩррРр `disgrace, insult`, ЎСрЮСр `formless` (P);
ЎСрдрЁфоРр `bad omen`, ЎСриЬВр `taking away`, carryinmg off`.
(6) ЎтШр = `towards`, `against`, `superior`, `special`:
ЎтШрШрржрВр `address`; ЎтШрЩрГр `opinion`
ЎтШрЪррРр `expedition`; ЎтШрЬкрр `custody`.
(7) Ўгр = `contrary`, `lacking,» `inferior`:
Ўгр±рфВр `defect, fault`; ЎгрµрчГрРр `opinion`
ЎгрЩрхвЪрРр `devaluation`, (µрчГрРр `conscious`).

(8) Ўр = `until`, `contrary`:
ЎрёрРЩр `for life` (A), `life-long,» ЎрЩрЬВр `until death` (A);
ЎрЗрРр `taking`; Ўр±рЩрРр `coming`
(ЗрРр `giving`), (±рЩрРр `going`).
(9) ЈГрю, ЈЗю = `upwards`, `superior`:
ЈГЖррРр `rise, progress`.
ЈЗюЧррчПрРр `awakening, exhortation`;
ЈЗю±рЩр `rising, shooting forth, origin`;
ЈЗюіррѕРр `opening, inauguration`;
ЈЗюЗВА `ill-behaved, rude` (P).

(10) ЈСр = `near`, `infeior`, `vice -`, `sub--`:
ЈСрРррЩр `surname, nickname`; ЈСрРр±рЬ `suburb`;
ЈСртРрЪрЩр `sub-rule`; ЈСрСЯПррРр `vice-president`;
ЈСрЩрьлру `deputy minister`.
(11) ЗфЬю, Зфзрю = `evil`, `diffcult`:
Зф±рбфВр `evil qualities`; ЗфёрбРр `villain`;
(ёрРр person)
ЗфЗбдрр `bad situation`; ЗфврбШр `difficult to obtain` (P).
Зф±рбЩр `difficult to traverse, or approach` (P).

(12) тРрЬю, тРрзрю = `away`, `out`, `without`:
тРрЬЖрбЁо `meaningless, useless` (P); тРрЬСрЬрПр `innocent` (P)
тРрШрбЪр `fearless` РрёрбРр `lonely` (place);
тРрЪррбГр `export`; тРрзГрчёр `spiritless` (P);
тРрдµрвр `unmoving, fixed` тРржЁорЩр `desireless (P);
(µрвр `moving`)

(13) СртЬ = `around`, `fully`, `well`:
СртЬёрРр `entourage, sevants`; СртЬЄоЩрр `circumambulation`;
СртЬГррчжр `full satisfaction`; СртЬСр©гр `quite ripe`;
СртЬгрПрбРр `addition, enlargement`.

(14) СЯ = `excess`, `very`, `forward`:
СЯЧрвр `very strong` (P); СЯЪрГРр `great effort`;
СЯ®ЪррГр `well-known`; СЯтЄоЪрр `process`;
СЯкрчСр `projection`; СЯ±ртГр `progress`.

(15) СЯтГр = `against`, `opposite`, `every`:
СЯтГрПгртРр `echo`; СЯтГртЧрЩЧр `reflection`;
СЯтГргррЗу `defendant`; СЯтГртЗРр `everyday` (A);
(гррЗу `plaintiff)
СЯтГркрВр `every moment` (A)

(16) тгр = `lacking`, `away`, `special`, `various`, `opposite`:
тгрёрРр `lonely (place)» (P); тгрзЩрЬВр `forgetting,
forgetfulness`;
тгрЩрвр `spotless, clean` (P); тгрмррРр `science`;
тгрёрЪр ` victory`; тгрШрр±р `division,
distribution`:
тгрЗчдр ` foreign land`; тгрЄоЪр `sale`
(Зчдр ` country`) (ЄоЪр `purchase`)

(17) зрЩрю = `with`, `together with`, `altogether`, `good`:
зрЩЩртГр `agreement`; зрЩЩрчврРр `conference`;
зрЩЩррРр `honour, homage`; зрьЬкрВр `protection`;
зрьтгрПррРр `constitution`; зрьдррчПрРр `amendment, correction`.

(18) зрф = `good`, `easily`:
зрфЁоЩрб `good work, merit`; зрфтдрткрГр `well-educated`;
зрфЁоЬ `easy to do` (P); зрфврШр `easy to obtain` (P);
зрф±рЩр `easy of access` (P).

(19) ЎРГрЬю, ЎРГр: = `inter-`:
ЎРГрЬрбжѕауЪр `international` ЎРГр:СЯрРГруЪр `inter-provincial`;
ЎРГрёррбГруЪр `intercaste`.

(20) Ёфо = `bad`, `evil`:
ЁфоЁоЩрб `bad deed, evil act`; ЁфоЭСр `ugly` (P):
ЁфоµрЄо `conspiracy`; ЁфотЗРр `bad day, adversity`.

(21) СрфРрЬю = `agaom`, `re-`:

СрфРртгрбгрри `remarriage` СрфРрёрбРЩр `rebirth`;
СрфРрЭГЖррРр `renaissance`.

(22) СЯрЁюо = `pre-`:
СЯр±рштГриртзрЁо `pre-historic`; СЯр©ЁоЖрРр `foreword`;
СЯр±грштЗЁо `pre-Vedic`; [ЁоЖрРр `say` (noun)]

(23) зр = `with`, `together with`, `same`:
зрТовр `fruitful, successful` (P);
зрёругр `living, full of life` (P);
зрёррГруЪр `of the same caste or community or kind` (P).

(24) зри = `with` together with`, `same`:
зри±ррРр `chorus`; зриЁорЬ `co-operation`;
зриЁорЬу `assistant`, зриСррїу `class-fellow`.
`co-operative`
4.Tadhava Prefixes
(1) Ў, ЎРрю = `without`, `lacking`:
ЎСрБя, ЎРрСрБя `uneducated` (P); ЎёррРр, ЎРрёррРр `ignorant`
Ўѕвр `definite; final,irrevocable` (P); (P);
ЎРрёррРрч `without knowing, unwittingly` (A);
ЎРрт±рРрГр `innumerable` (P); ЎРрЩррчвр `invaluable` (P).
(2) Ёфо = `bad`, `evil`:
Ёфоµррвр `bad ways; misconduct`; ЁфоАршвр `ugly` (P);
(Аршвр `form, shape`).
(3) Зф = `bad`, `lacking`:
ЗфЁорвр `bad time, famine`;
ЗфЧрврр `weak, lean, without strength` (P).

(4) тРр = `lacking`, `without`:
тРрЁоЩЩрр `useless` (P); тРрАЬ `fearless` (P);
тРриГЖрр `unarmed` (P).

(5) тЧрРр = `without`, `un........`:
тЧрРр-ЧЪррир `unmarried` (P): тЧрРр-ёррРрч without
knowing` (archaic) (A).

(6) ШрЬ = `ful`, `as much as possible`:
ШрЬСрчѕ `bellyful, to heart`s content` (A);
ШрЬзрЁо `as far as one can` (зрЁоРрр `to be able to`) (A);
ШрЬСрхЬ `plentiful`.
ШрЬ is really the Absolutive form of ШрЬРрр (243) and means `filing, so as to fill`. In the above compounds, it has, however, been used as a prefix (cf 294-e and 295).

Arabic and Persian Prefixes
(1) ±ршЬ = `without`, `against`, `foreign`;
±ршЬиртёрЬ `absent`; ±ршЬзрЬЁорЬу `unofficial`;
±ршЬЁорРрхРру `illegal`.

(2) Ррр = `without`:
РррСрзрРЗ `unliked; unacceptable`; Ррр®рфдр `displeased, angry`:
РррЩрьёрхЬ `disallowed , rejected`. РррвррЪрЁо `unworthy`.

(3) Фоу = `per`:
Тоу ЎрЗЩру `per head` (A); Тоу ЭСрЪрр `per rupee` (A);
Тоу зрчЬ `per seer` (A). Тоу зршьЁоАяр `per cent` (A).

(4) врр = `without`:
вррСрЬгрри `careless` (P); вррёргррЧр `speechless; `incom parable` (P);
(ёргррЧр `reply`)
вррСрГрр `untraceable, missing` (P);
вррэвррёр `incurable` (P).

(5) Чрч = without`:
ЧрчэбЩррРр `dishonest` (P); ЧрчёррРр `lifeless` (P);
ЧрчµррЬр `helpless` (P); Чрчирчдр `semse;ess` (P);
ЧрчЬиЩр `merciless`)P); Чрч®рѕЁчо `fearlessly` (A).

(6) иЬ = `every`:
иЬ Ьрчёр `every day` (A); иЬ зррвр `every year` (A);
иЬ ¦Ёо `every one`; иЬ ЧррЬ `each time` (A).

SUFFIXES

6. Suffixes are elements attached to a root, a Pronoun, an Adjectives etc. for forming related words. Some suffixes attached to a root make Nouns or Adjectives, e.g.
врАярэб `fight` from врАяРрр `to fight`;
±ргршЪрр `singer` from ±ррРрр `to sing`.

Other suffixes attached to Nouns or Adjectives etc. form further Nouns or Adjectives:

Чрь±ррвру `a Bengali` from Чрь±ррвр `Bengal`;
ЧрфЬрэб `badness` from ЧрфЬр `bad`;
СЪррзрр `thirsty` from СЪррзр `thirst`.

7. There are thus two kinds of suffixes :

(1) those attached to a root and forming Verbal Nouns and Adjectives and

(2) those attached to a Noun or Adjective and forming Secondary Nouns or Adjectives. The first variety of suffixe, and the words formed by them are called ЁцоЗРГр, Primary Derivatives.

The second variety of suffixes is called ГртКГр or Secondary Suffixes and the words formed by them are called ГртКГррРГр or Secondary Derivatives;

The main Primary Suffixes of Hindi are as follows: The root itself is occasionally used as an Abstract Noun:

ЩррЬ `beating` from ЩррЬРрр `to beat`;
ЗршАя `race, running` from ЗрчАяРрр `to run`;
врхѕ `plunder` from врхѕРрр `to rob, to plunder`;
®рчвр `play, sport` from ®рчврРрр `to play`.

Sometimes the vowel of the roots is lengthened or modified:

µррвр `gait or motion` from µрврРрр `to move`;
ЧррБя `flood, increase` from ЧрБяРрр `to grow`;
Щрчвр `harmony, friendship from тЩрврРрр `to meet`.

-Ў©ЁоАя = `doing something habitually or excessively`, forms Adjectives:
Шрфвр©ЁоАя `forgetful` from ШрхврРрр `to forget`;
тСрЪр©ЁоАя `drunkard` from СруРрр `to drink`;
ЁфоЗ©ЁоАя `habitually jumping` from ЁхоЗРрр `to jump`;
ірфЩр©ЁоАя `wanderer` from ірхЩрРрр `to wander`.
Long vowel of a root is regularly shortened before - Ў©ЁоАя.
-Ўр forms abstract, or agent, or action, or instrumental Nouns (Masc.) as well as past participles see :- (a) The Past Participle is formed by appending Ўр to the root:

(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and эб shorten their vowels before the -Ўр and, in the case of-эб roots, a-Ър is inserted between the root and the-Ўр. Thus-

(c) -Ър is similarly inserted in case of the roots ending in - Ўр -¦ or - Ўрч. Thus -

(d) The following are exceptional forms:-

»р±рАяр `quarrel` from »р±рАяРрр `to quarrel`;
¶рСрр `print` from ¶рСрРрр `to print`;
ірчЬр `siege` from ірчЬРрр `to surround`;
ШрѕЁор `shock` from ШрѕЁоРрр `to shake`;
Щрчврр `fair` from тЩрврРрр `to meet`;
»рхврр `swing` (Noun) from »рфврРрр `to swing`;
±рьї-Ёоѕр `pick-pocket` from ЁорѕРрр `to cut`;
тЩрї-Чррчврр `speaking sweetly` from ЧррчврРрр `to speak`.
Note the vowel-changes in Щрчврр and ±рьї-Ёоѕр.
Ўрэб forms Abstract Nouns (Fem.) :
врАярэб `fight` from врАяРрр `to quarrel, to fight`;
СрБярэб `study` from СрБяРрр `to study, to learn`;
µрБярэб `ascent` from µрБяРрр `to ascend, to climb`;
ЁоЩррэб `earning` from ЁоЩррРрр `to earn`.

Some Nouns formed with Ўрэб denote `cost` or `charges` for the work done:
Прфвррэб `washing chjarges` from ПрфвррРрр `to get washed`;
твр®ррэб `writing changes, from твр®рРрр `to write`.
clerkage`-Ўр¤ = `able`, `fit for`, `doing`, forms Adjectives:
тЧрЁор¤ `saleable` from тЧрЁоРрр `to sell` (intrans.);
тѕЁор¤ `durable` from тѕЁоРрр `to last`;
т±рЬр¤ `likely to from т±рЬРрр `to fall`; collapse or fall`
ЁоЩрр¤ `one who earns from ЁоЩррРрр `to earn`; (much)»
®рр¤ `voracious` from ®ррРрр `to eat`. -ЎрЁо, -ЎрЁор, -ЎрЁхо = `doing habitually, efficiently`, form Adjectives:
врАярЁор `quarrelsome` from врАяРрр `to quarrel`;
ГршЬрЁо `a skilful swimmer` from ГршЬРрр `to swim`;
ЈАярЁо, `flying` from ЈАяРрр `to fly`.
ЈАярЁхо
These Adjectives do not modify in the Feminine. -Ўргр forms Abstract Nouns (Masc.) :
µрБяргр `ascent` from µрБяРрр `to ascend`;
Чриргр `flow` from ЧриРрр `to flow`;
ірфЩрргр `bend, turn` from ірхЩрРрр `to turn`;
Чрµрргр `protection` from ЧрµрРрр `to escape, to avoid`. -ЎрРр forms Abstract Nouns (Masc. or Fem.):
ЈАярРр `flight` from ЈАярРрр `to fly`;
ЈїрРр `growth, rise` from ЈїРрр `to arise`;
тЩрвррРр `comparison` from тЩрврРрр `to meet, to
tally`;
вр±ррРр `tax` from вр±рРрр `to be levied`. -Ўргрѕ forms Abstrac Nouns (Fem.):
твр®рргрѕ `writing` form твр®рРрр `to write`;
ЧрРрргрѕ `make, fabrication` form ЧрРрРрр `to make`;
ЭЁоргрѕ `obstruction` form ЬрчЁоРрр `to stop`;
зрёрргрѕ `decortaion` form зрёррРрр `todecorato`;
-Ўргрр froms Abstract Nouns (Masc): Чрфврргрр `call` from ЧрфвррРрр `to call`;
Шрфврргрр `deceptnon` from ШрфвррРрр `to farget
(`to cheat`);
СриРрргрр `dress` from СриРрРрр `to put on`. -Ўриѕ forms Abstract Nouns (Fem.) :
тµрвврриѕ `cry` from тµрввррРрр `to cry`;
ірЧрЬриѕ `perturbation` from ірЧрЬрРрр `to worry; to
`consternation` feel anxious`. -эЪрвр `tending to, prove to`, `-ly` forms Adjectives:
зртАяЪрвр `rotten, rotting from зрАяРрр `to rot`;
ЩртЬЪрвр `half-dead, sickly` from ЩрЬРрр `to die`;
ЎтАяЪрвр `obnstinate` from ЎАяРрр `to be obstinate,
to stick`. -эб forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine):
иызру `laughter, joke` from иызрРрр `to laugh`;
Чррчвру `speech, dialect` from ЧррчврРрр `to speak`;
ірфАяЁоу `rebuke` from ірфАяЁоРрр `to rebuke`. -¦Ьр forms Abstract or Agent Nouns (Adjectives):
ЁоЩрчЬр `earning` from ЁоЩррРрр `to earn`;
врфѕчЬр `robber` from врхѕРрр `to rob`;
ЧрзрчЬр `lodging, roost` from ЧрзррРрр `to dwell`. -Гр forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine):
ЧрµрГр `saving` from ЧрµрРрр `to escape, be saved`;
®рСрГр `consumption, sale` from ®рСрРрр `to sell` (intrans). -Гру forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine):
ЧрБяГру `growth, increase` from ЧрБяРрр `to grow`;
т±рРрГру `counting` from т±рРрРрр `to count`;
ШрЬГру `filling, recruitment` from ШрЬРрр `to fill`. -Рр forms Abstract Nouns (Masc. or Fem.):
µрврРр `conduct` from µрврРрр `to move`;
ЩрфзрЁорРр `smile` from ЩрфзрЁорРрр `to smile`. -Ррр forms Infinitives (see section III, chapter X): -гррврр .

The important Secondary Suffixes of Hindi are as follows:-
1-Ўр forms Adjectives denoting `having`:
Шрх®рр `hungry` from Шрх®р `hunger`;
СЪррзрр `thirsty` from СЪррзр `thirst`;
Щршврр `dirty` from Щршвр `dirt`

(2)-Ўрэб forms Abstract and other Nouns (Fem.) from Adjectives:
Ўµ¶рэб `goodness` from Ўµ¶р `good`;
ЧрфЬрэб `badness, evil` from ЧрфЬр `bad`;
тЩрїрэб `sweetmeat` from Щруїр `seweet`.

-Ўрзр forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Adjectives:
тЩрїрзр `sweetness` from Щруїр `sweet`;
®рѕрзр `sourness` from ®рѕюѕр `sour`. -Ўрзр forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Adjectives:
ЁоАягрриѕ `bitterness` from ЁоАягрр `bitter`;
тµрЁоРрриѕ `smoothness` from тµрЁоРрр `smooth`. -эЪрр forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `coming from`, `belonging to`:
ЁоврЁотГрЪрр `of Calcutta` from ЁоврЁоДрр `Calcutta`;
ЁоРррштёрЪрр `belonging to Kanauj` from ЁоРрршёр `Kanauj`;
ЧрЩЧрэЪрр `grown in Bombay` from ЧрЩЧрэб `Bombay`.
-эЪрр also forms diminutives (Feminine):
®ртѕЪрр `a small cot` from ®ррѕ `cot`;
тЧртѕЪрр `young daughter` from Чрчѕу `daughter`;
тАтЧрЪрр `casket` from тАЧЧрр `box`. -эб forms Adjectives from Nouns, and denotes `belonging to`, having`, `coming from`:
±рфвррЧру `rosy` from ±рфвррЧр `rose`;
Чрь±ррвру `Bengali` from Чрь±ррвр `Bengal`;
Зчдру `countrymade` from Зчдр `country`;
¤Рру `wollen` from ¤Рр `wool`;
ёрь±рвру `wild` from ёрь±рвр `forest`.
-эб also forms Diminutives (Feminine):
СрирАяу `hill` from СрирАя `mountain`;
Ьззру `rope` from Ьззрр `rope`;
ѕрчЁоЬу `small basket` from ѕрчЁоЬр `basket`.
-эб further forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Nouns or Adjectives:
µррчЬу `theft` from µррчЬ thief
®рчГру `agriculture` from ®рчГр field`;
ЧрфтКЩррРру `wisdom` from ЧрфтКЩррРр `wise`;
±рЬуЧру `poverty` from ±рЬуЧр `poor`. эбврр forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `containing`, `full of`;
Ьзруврр `juicy` from Ьзр `juice`;
ёриЬувр `poisonous` from ёриЬ `poison`;
СрРруврр `watery` from СррРру `water` (with vowel-shortening).
-¤ forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `belonging to`, `tending to`, etc.:
ЧррёррЮ `of the market`, from ЧррёррЬ `market`;
`common`, `cheap`
ірЮ `homely`, `private` from ірЬ `home, house`;
Брврх `sloping` from Брвр `slope`;
Срчѕх `voracious` from Срчѕ `belly, stomach`.
(9) -¦Ьр denotes `belonging to`, `dealing in` and forms Nouns and Adjectives from Nouns:
ЩрЩрчЬр (Fem. ЩрЩрчЬу) from ЩррЩрр `maternal uncle`;
µрµрчЬр (Fem. µрµрчЬу) from µррµрр `uncle`;
ЩрршзрчЬр (Fem. ЩрршзрчЬу) from Щрршзру `maternal aunt` etc.

These words denote `sons (or daughters) of maternal uncle` etc.
зрыСрчЬр `snake-charmer` from зррыСр `snake`;
тµрГрчЬр `painter` from тµрлр `picture, painting`.
(10) -СрРр forms Abstract Nouns (Masculine) form Adjectives or Nouns:
ЁорвррСрРр `blackness` from Ёорврр `black`;
Срр±рврСрРр `madness` from Срр±рвр `mad`;
врАяЁоСрРр `boyishness` from врАяЁор `boy`.

(11) Срр similarly makes Abstract Nouns (Masculine) from Nouns or Adjectives which shorten their first vowels:
ЩрфѕрСрр (ЩррчѕрСрр, `fatness` from Щррчѕр `fat`;
ЧрфБярСрр `old age` from ЧрхБяр `old`;
ЬыАрСрр `widowhood` from ЬрыА `widow`.
(12) иЬр See:- эЁоиЬр `single, not double or multiple, lean`, ЗрчиЬр `two-fold, stout`, and тГриЬр, ГрчиЬр `treble, three-fold`, µрршиЬр `quadruple, four-fold`, зргррЪрр `1 1/4 times as much` and АюЪррчБяр ` one half as much`, are special forms.

The following Persian suffixes may also be noted:
1-эб forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) From Adjectives:
®рфдру `pleasure` from ®рфдр `happy, pleased`;
ЗрчзГру `friendship` from ЗрчзГр `friend`;
ЗфдЩрРру `enmity` from ЗфдЩрРр `enemy`.
2-±рЬ or ±ррЬ makes Nouns, and denotes `dealing in`:
зрршЗр±рЬ `merchant` from зрршЗр `merchandise`;
ёррЗх±рЬ `magician` from ёррЗх `magic`;
±рфРри±ррЬ `sinner` from ±рфРрри `sin (with vowel-
shorrtening);
ЩрЗЗ±ррЬ `helper` from ЩрЗЗ `help`.
3-ЎрРрр makes Adjectives from Nouns :
зррвррРрр `annual` from зррвр `year`;
ЬрчёррРрр `daily` from Ьрчёр `day`;
ЩрЗрбРрр `manly, (as) male` from ЩрЗб `male`;
дррирРрр `royal` from дрри `king`. -РррЁо forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `full of, arousing`:
ЗЗбРррЁо `touching, piteous` from ЗЗб `pin, pity`;
®рршТоРррЁо `frightful` from ®рршТо `fear, fright`;
®рГрЬРррЁо `dangerous` from ®рГрЬр `danger`. -эбРр forms Adjectives from Nouns and dentoes `having`:
Ьь±руРр `coloured` from Ьь±р `colour`;
дрршЁоуРр `fond` from дрршЁо `liking, hobby`;
РрЩрЁоуРр `salty` from РрЩрЁо `salt`. -ЩрьЗ forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `having`;
ЗршврГрЩрьЗ `wealthy` from ЗршврГр `wealth`;
Ў©врЩрьЗ `wise` from Ў©вр `wisdom`;
ТорЪрЗчЩрьЗ `useful, advantageous` from ТорЪрЗр `advantage`.
(7) ЗрЬ similarly forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `having`:
ёрЩруьЗрЬ `zamindar, landlord` from ёрЩруьРр `land`;
ЩррврЗрЬ `wealthy` from Щррвр `property`;
ЗхЁорРрЗрЬ `shopkeeper` from ЗхЁорРр `shop`

GENDER FORMS

GENDER (77)

Gender in Hindi is determined by usage, not by any hard and fast rules. The following points may be noted for guidance:

Nouns denoting male beings are Masculine and those denoting fe,a;e neomgs are Fe,omome. (They have the `Natural Gender`). However, the Masculine Nouns Чрµµрч (plural) `children, and вррч±р `people` (always plural) may refer to both male and female persons. Чрµµрр in the singular may refer to a female child, although the feminine form Чрµµру does exist. Nouns denoting certain species of animals, birds, insects etc. are either only Masculine or only Feminine. Masculine:-

For denoting specifically the female species, the word ЩррЗр `female` is prefixed to these Nouns, the gender remaining the same:

Feminine:-

For denoting the male, the word РрЬ `male` is prefixed to these - the gender remaining Feminine. Collective Nouns are treated as names of `things` even if they refer to a collection of human beings, and their Gender depends upon usage. Thus, зрЩрхи `group`, »рфьА `multitude`, СртЬгррЬ or ЁфоѕфЩЧр `family`, Звр `troop` etc. are Masculine; while ШруАя `crowd`, Тршёр `army`, зрШрр `meeting or assembly`, СЯёрр `the ipeople, (subjects)» etc. are Feminine.
Most of the Tadbhava Nouns ending in -Ўр, -Ррр, -Ўргр, -СрРр, Срр and -ЎрРр are Masculine:

Most of the Nouns ending in -эб , -эЪрр, -грѕ, -иѕ are Feminine:

etc. But іру `ghee`, Зиу `curd`, СррРру `water`, ЩррчГру `pearl` ёру `mind, heart, mental or physical condition` are Masculine.

Genders of Tatsama Nouns are usually retained, the Sanskrit Neuter gender being treated as Masculine.

In many cases, however, genders of Tatsama words have been altered by Hindi usage under the influence of their forms, or on the analogy of a Hindi synonym. Thus ЎрГЩрр `soul` (ЎрГЩрРрю) and ЩртиЩрр `greatness` (ЩртиЩрРрю) are Masculine in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi, presumably because of the final Ўр of these words- which is frequently met with in Tatsama Feminine Nouns (like зрфГрр `daughter, `ЗЪрр `mercy`, СЯШрр `lustre`, Ўёрр `she-goat` etc). гЪрт©Гр `an individual, a person`, is Feminine in Sanskrit, but Masculine in Hindi because `person` is also denoted by ЎрЗЩру and ЩрРрфжЪр which are Masculine. Ўт±Рр `fire` is Masculine in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi, because of the final -э [cf. (f) above]. СрфзГрЁо `book`, similarly, is Neuter in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi because its synonym СррчЖру (derived from Sanskrit СрфтзГрЁор Fem). is Feminine.

Formation of Feminine Nouns

(a) Words ending in the inherent -Ў or in -Ўр form their Feminine by replacing -or in -Ўр -by -эб:

(b) Some Nouns ending in - Ўр, however, form their Feminine (Diminutive) by replacing - Ўр by - эЪрр:

Notice that the conjunct consonants in ЧрфАюБяр and ЁфоДрр have been simplifed and that the loong vowels in Чрчѕр and µрхир replaced by the corresponding short ones. Some Masculine Nouns denoting occupation form their Feminine by replacing the final vowel
by -эРр: A few other Nouns also form their Feminine by addomg -эРр:

Some Nouns form their Feminine by adding -Рру:

Some Nouns add - ЎрРру:

Nouns denoting class or rank form their Feminine by adding - ЎрэбРр:

Some Nouns have altogether different words as their Feminine:

Sometimes Masculine Nouns ae formed from Feminine Nouns by adding various suffixes:

Two or more Hindi words can be combined into one and thus form a compound. The `combining` is, in the main, effected by dropping the case-sings, post-positions, conjunctions, or other words, which denote the relation between the constituent words, which denote the relation between the constituent words of a compound. Thus -

In forming some compounds, however, there is no occasion to drop a connecting word, since none exists. Such, especially is the case when a Prefix or an Adjective is combined with a Noun(to form a Determinative Compound). Thus-

(a) The components of a compound occasionally shorten(or modify) their long vowels. This happens usually to the first component, but sometimes also to the second, or to both. In some cases, a suffix(-Ўр, -эб. etc.) is also attached to the last member(see :- The same Compound can be a Determinative, or a Possessive, according as the first member qualifies(``determines``) the second member, or as the Compound as a whole qualifies another Noun (outside the Compound). Thus, the compound µрРНЩрф®р, `when it signifies a `moonlike face`, is a Determinative; but when it signifies `moon-faced`, `having a moonlike face`, it is Possessive. Similarly, ЎёррРр or ЎРрёррРр may mean either `lack of knowledge, ignorance, inadvertance`, in wchich case, it is a Possive.

Such Compounds, however, are only rarely met with in Hindi and there is a general tendency to avoid the possible confusion in meaning by marking, with some suffix like -Ўр or эб(App. iii, 3-a). Such Possessive Compounds, as may otherwise, be interpreted as Determinatives. Thus-

Thus-

The numerals ¦Ёо, Зрч, тГрРр, µррЬ, Сррыµр, ¶и зррГр and Ўрї, as first members of a compound, are usually modified to эЁо, Зф-, тГр(or тГрЬ-), µррш-, Срьµр or(Срµр-), ¶-, зрГр-, and Ўї- Thus-

These modified forms(except Зф-) can be seen in the numerals:

All the numerals above ten(except those for 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90) are, of course, compounds (5 below).

The compounds can be divided into three main classes:-

Of these, the Determinative Compounds are further sub-divided into:-

The Hindi(or Sanskrit) names for these are as follows:-

(1) Co-ordinative ОРО
(2) (a) Dependent Determinative ГрГСрфЭжр
(b) Descriptive Determinative ЁоЩрбПррЬЪр (with a sub-variety тО±рф)
(c) Adverbial Determinative ЎгЪрЪруШрргр
(3) Possessive тьЧЯЧЯути
Co-ordinative Compounds

Co-ordinative(ОРО) Compounds consist of two(or more) Nouns, Adjectives, or Advebs, which are connected by ЎршЬ `and` or by Ърр `or`. The Compounds thus formed have, naturally, the Plural Number but also the Singular when Collective sense is intended.

Two(or more) Nouns-

Sometimes the two Nouns are more or lees synonymous with each other:-

Two Adjective(or numerals)-

See:- Certain pairs of numerals also denote approximation :

Зрч-¦Ёо `one or two`, Зрч-ГруРр, ГруРр-µррЬ, µррЬ-Сррыµр, Сррыµр-¶: etc.
Ззр -Сррьµр, Ззр-Чрузр, Ззр-СрРНёр, Чрузр-Срµµрузр, Чрузр-Грузр, Грузр-СршьГрузр, Грузр-µррврузр-СршьГррврузр, µррврузр-Срµррзр, Срµррзр-СрµрСрРр, Срµррзр-зррї.
зррш-зргрр-зррш, зррш-АчБя зррш, зррш-Зрч зррш, Зрч Брэб зррш, Зрч-ГруРр зррш.

All the numerals above ten(except those for 20, 30, 40 etc.) are Co-ordinative Compounds, with considerable modifications of the original forms of the components. Thus:-

See :The numerals ¦Ёо, Зрч, тГрРр, µррЬ, Сррыµр, ¶и зррГр and Ўрї, as first members of a compound, are usually modified to эЁо, Зф-, тГр(or тГрЬ-), µррш-, Срьµр or(Срµр-), ¶-, зрГр-, and Ўї- Thus-

These modified forms(except Зф-) can be seen in the numerals:

Two Adverbs(or adverbially) used words)-

Sometimes the same Adverb(or adverbially used word) is repeated(with an intensification of the meaning):

Occasionally, the first component of such(repetitive) Compounds attaches an(Ўрчь), when the meaning is variously modified.:

In some cases, the particle иу(294-a) is placed between the two repeated words:-

In a few cases, the case-sign зрч (98) is placed between the two repeated words:

Repetitive Compounds of indefinite Pronouns, and of Adverbs formed from them are made by placing the Negative particle Рр between the two words. These Compounds have a pronounced indefinite force:-

II - Determinative Compounds

Determinative Compounds are characterised by the `determining` or, in some way, qualifying of the second member by the first member. These, as already noted, are of three kinds-Dependent, Descriptive and Adverbial.

II(a) Dependent Determinatives

In a Dependent Determinative(ГрГСрфЭжр), the first member is dependent on the second, functioning as an attribute (not as an Adjective) of the latter. In the pre-compound form, the first member is always in the Oblique form. Thus-

Some dependent Determinatives have for their second member a Verbal derivative [App. i 7(a)я] which is not used independently, (These are called ЈСрСрЗ ГрГСрфЭжр). Thus-

II(b) Descriptive Determinatives

In Descriptive Determinative(ЁоЩрбПррЬЪр) Compounds, the first member describes the second. The first member, thus, is an Adjective or a word used as an Adjective). Thus-

If the `first` member is a numeral, a Descriprive Determinative is usually treated as a collective Noun, and is calledтО±рф :-

The components sometimes modify their form:-

A Descriptive Determinative sometimes signifies comparison between the two members:-

A large number of Descriptive Determinative Compounds are formed with the help of prefixes. These have already been illustrated under the discussion on Prefixes(Appendix I). Thus-

III(c) Adverbial Determinatives

Some prefixes form Compounds which are used as Adverbs. Such Compounds are called Adverbial Determinatives (ЎгЪрЪруШрргр). These have already been illustrated under the discussion on Prefixes(Appendix I). Thus

In some Adverbial Compounds, the first member is an Adverb used as a Prefix. Thus -

Note: The name `Adverbial Compound` is restricted to the variety discussed above. Compounds of Adverbs, discussed in App. iii, 5(c) -(g), are `Co-ordinative`.

III Possessive Compounds

A. Possessive Compound(ЧрифгЯути) is always adjectival in nature, referring to a person or thing not denoted, severally, by either of the members of the Compound. Thus -

Possessive Compounds, as well as Determinative Compounds, can be formed with the help of Prefixes. These have already been illustrated under the discussion on Prefixes.(Appendix I). Thus-

The same Compound can be a Determinative, or a Possessive, according as the first member qualifies(``determines``) the second member, or as the Compound as a whole qualifies another Noun (outside the Compound). Thus, the compound µрРНЩрф®р, `when it signifies a `moonlike face`, is a Determinative; but when it signifies `moon-faced`, `having a moonlike face`, it is Possessive. Similarly, ЎёррРр or ЎРрёррРр may mean either `lack of knowledge, ignorance, inadvertance`, in wchich case, it is a Possive.

Such Compounds, however, are only rarely met with in Hindi and there is a general tendency to avoid the possible confusion in meaning by marking, with some suffix like -Ўр or эб(App. iii, 3-a). Such Possessive Compounds, as may otherwise, be interpreted as Determinatives. Thus-

Marks of Punctuation

(a) Hindi has the same marks of Punctuation as English, except that for the Full Stop (.) marking the end of a sentence, a vertical stroke (/) is used. However, after initials and abbreviated words, the Full Stop is either etained, or replaced by a cipher (.).

Thus, Щрш гриры ±рЪрр Жрр |; Ррр. СЯ. = РррЬрЪрВрСЯзррЗ

¦Щр. ¦. = M. A.
¦Щр. ¦вр. ¦. = M. L. A.
Ар. or Ары. = Dr.
Срь. or Срь. = СрьтАГр
тёр. or тёр. = тёрврр

(b) The vertical stroke is also used for marking the end of the first hemistish (half-verse). For marking the end of the verse itself, two vertical strokes may be used. In case the verses are numbered, the number is placed between two double strokes at the end. Thus-

тЗгрзр Ёор ЎгрзррРр зрЩруСр Жрр
±р±рРр Жрр Ёфо¶ вррчтиГр ирч µрврр |
ГрЭ-тдрврр СрЬ Жру ЎЧр ЬрёрГру
ЁоЩрртврРру-Ёфовр-грвврШр Ёоу СЯёрр || (or || 1||)

Some modern writers prefer the Full Stop to the cipher as well as to the vertical stroke, thus adopting the English usage in full. The rest of the punctuation-marks, viz., comma, semi-colon. colon, dash, hyphen, single and double inverted commas, apostrophe and brackets, are used as in English. However, the colon (:) is usually avoided, lest it should be confused with the visarga sign (2-e).

Day of the Week etc.

the days of the week are name as follows:-

The months of the year are namded as follows:-

Sanskrit:- µршлр, гршдрр®р, ёрчжї, ЎржррБ ергрВр, ШррНСрЗ, ЎртдгрРр,ЁортГрбЁо Ўр±ЯирЪрВр or Щрр±рбдружрб, Срршжр, Щррір, Торв±рфРр.

Hindi:- µршГр, Чршзрр®р, ёрчї, ЎржррБя, зрргрРр, ШррЗрчь, ©гррЬ, ЁортГрЁо, Ў±риРр, Срхзр, Щррір.Тор±рфРр.

The era prevalent amongst the Hindi-speaking people is that of King Vikrama (CalleтгрЄоЩр зрргрьГр) which differs form the Chirstian era by +57 years. The new year begins on the 16th day of µршлр. (a) The unit of weight is зрчЬ, `seer` which is divided into sixteen parts called ¶ѕрыЁо. is a Срргр. Forty seers equals one ЩрРр `maund`. A seer is appoximately two pounds.

(b) For weighing gold, silver etc., as well as medicines, the following weights are used:-

eight ®рзр®рзр = one µрргрвр
eight µрргрвр = one ЬГру
eight ЬГру = one Щррдрр
twelve Щррдрр = one Гррчвр
five Гррчвр = one ¶ѕрыЁо.

The unit for linear measurement is ±рёр = `yard` which (apart from being divided into feet and inches) is divided into sixteen parts called т±рЬи (literally `knot` or `joint`)

Half a ±рёр = a ирЖр `hand`, aad half a ирЖр = a ЧрртврдГр or ЧррвррьЗ `span (9 inches`).

A т±рЬи (1/16 yard) is divided into twentyfour parts called ёррш `barley grains`; eight ёррш makes an Ўь±рфвр `finger`.

Areas are measured (besiedes in square yard, feet and inches) in Чруірр, тЧрзргрр (or тЧрзгрр) and тЧрзргррьзру (or тЧрзгррьзру);

20 тЧрзргррьзру = one тЧрзргрр,
20 тЧрзргрр = one Чруірр

31/40 Чруірр = one ¦«Ая
A Чруірр = 14,400 square feet.

Time is measured (besides in hours, minutes and seconds) in СриЬ, ірАяу, Срвр and ЎкрЬ.

A СриЬ (Sanskrit СриЬ) is 1/8 of day + night, i.e. 3 hours.

A ірАяу is 1/60 of day + night, i.e. 24 minutes, and is itself divied into 60 parts which are called Срвр Each Срвр is also divided into 60 parts which are called ЎкрЬ. Thus-

an ЎкрЬ = 24/60 (=2/5) seconds,
a Срвр = 60 ЎкрЬ = 24 seconds,
a ірАяу = 60 Срвр = 24 minutes,

a day+ night = 60 ірАяу = 24 hours.

All astronomical calculations are still made with the help of the above division of time.

Note: 6 to 8 are now obsolete India has since switched over to the metric system of weights and measures and follows decimal system of currency. However, the old system has been mentioned hrer of information only.

Vowels :

Matras :

Consonants :

Figures:

Explanations:

The long vowel Ґ is no longer in vogue in Hindi, it has, therefore, not been included in the list of vowels. Conjunct letters: Consonants with verrical line (®рАяу Сррэб) :

®р ±р ір µр ёр »р Ѕр Вр Гр Жр Пр Рр

Ср Чр Шр Щр Ър вр гр др жр кр мр

Conjunct letters, in case of these consonants, should be formed by removing the vertical line, e.g.

®ЪрртГр, вр±Рр, тгріРр, Ёоµµрр, ¶ёёрр, гЪрЅёрРр, Рр±рВЪр, ЁфоГГрр, СріЪр, ПгртРр, РЪррзр, СЪррзр, тАЧЧрр, зрШЪр, ЬЩЪр, дрЪЪрр, Јвврч®р, гЪррзр, двррчЁо, ЬржѕауЪр, згруЁцоГр, ЪркЩрр |

Other consonants: The present form of the conjunct Ёо and То should continue, e.g. зрьЪрф©Гр, Ср©Ёор, ЗУГрЬ

(not as зрьЪрф©Гр, Ср©Ёор, ЗУГрЬ)

The conjunct forms of ґ ¶ ѕ ї А Б and З should be made by adding the иврю symbol ( ю) , e.g. гррґЩрЪр врѕюѕх ЧрфАюБр тгрЗюЪрр etc. (not as гррґюЩрЪр врѕюѕх ЧрфАюБр тгрМрр) All the three old formsof conjunct Ь should continue; as СЯЁорЬ, ПрЩрб, Ьржѕа е should be written in the old style as in еу. Conjunct form of Грю and Ь should be written as вр insotead of лр (Later, the form лр as in vogue earlier, has also been approved). Conjunct coonsonant with и may also be formed with иврю symbol besides that in vogue e.g. тµрйРр and тµриюРр (but not тµрйРр). The old style of conjunct forms of letters may continue in Sanskrit text. All other symbols or marks of punctuation which are either used or have naturalised themselves into Hindi and as approved by the Government of India on the advice of experts in the field shall continue to be used as before. A few instances are:-

(i) The use of headline.

(a) Except for the full-stop, all punctuation marks as current in English e.g.- _, ; ? ! . (The symbol for visarga should also serve as a colon) For full-stop (.), a vertical line (|) should be used. The following symbols be incorporated in the typewriter keyboard, as far as possible

( ь ы) should continue as in vogue.

Under the presidential orders issued from time to time, except for some specified purposes, only the internatinal numerals are to be used in all official publications in Hindi.

International numerals:

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

With& view to equipping Devanagari Script for transcription of the modern Indian languages, the following additional symbols have been fixed for expressing the special sounds of regional languages for which no symbols existed in Devanagari Script.

A. Vowels Letters Matras

(i) Short ¦ and short Ўрч of the four South ¦щ Ўр` ч рч

Indian Languages& Kashmiri.

(ii) Unrounded vowels of Kashmiri Ўь Ўрь ь рь

Ј ь ¤ ь  ьф  ьх

  (iii) Very short э and Ј sounds occuring only э Ј т ф

finally in some Kashmiri words.

The diacritical marks recommended at (ii) and (iii) above may be used for other languages also where necessary.

Consonants Kashmiri Chavarga ( µр ¶ ёр »р ). These may be used in case of Telugu etc. also, where necessary. Sindhi Implosives ±р ёр З Чр ъ for Tamil Р and яжря for Malayalam Ь for Tamil and Malayalam& Telugu, Kannada Ь Ь for Malayalam Рр for Tamil and Malayalam alveolar Urdugraphemes:

«о ®яр Ір

єр »яр Хо

STANDARDISATION OF HINDI SPELLING

A set of rules for standard Hindi spelling, as formulated by an Expert Comittee appointed by Government for the purpose and as approved by the Government is given below:

The case-signs in Hindi should always be written as separate words, except in case of pronouns where they should be tagged on to the stems (СЯртГрСртЗЁо); e.g.

1. ЬрЩр Ррч, 2 злру Ёорч, 3. Јзрзрч, 4. Щрф»рЁорч. But keeping in view the convenience of the printing press, thje case-signs may be tagged on to the nouns also in journals and periodicals.

Exception:

Where pronouns have two case-signs at a time, the first should be tagged on to the stem while the second should be written separately; e.g. 1. ЈзрЁчо твр¦, 2. эзрЩрчь зрч. When the particles иу, ГрЁо etc. fall in between a pronoun and its case-sign be written as a separate word; e.g. ЎрСр иу Ёчо твр¦, Щрф»р ГрЁо Ёорч. In case of compound verbs, all subsidiaries should be written separately;

e.g. 1. СрБяр ЁоЬГрр иш, 2. Ўр зрЁоГрр иш.

The indeclinables ГрЁо, зррЖр etc. should always be written as separate words; e.g. ЎрСрЁчо зррЖр, Ъриры ГрЁо. The absolutive forms should always be written as single words, e.g. тЩрвррЁоЬ, ®рр-СруЁоЬ, Ьрч-ЬрчЁоЬ. In case of co-ordinative compounds, hyphen should be placed in between the constituent words; e.g. ЬрЩр-вркЩрВр, тдргр-СрргрбГру-зрьгррЗ. Hyphen should be placed before particles like зрр, ёршзрр e.g. ГрфЩр-зрр, ЬрЩр-ёршзрр, µррЁхо-зрч Гру®рч. In case of dependent determinative compounds, hyphen should be used only to avoid risk of ambiguity e.g. Шрх-ГрДгр. Where the use of glidal Ър,гр is optional, it may be avoided, i.e., in the words like ±р¦-±рЪрч, Ррэб-РрЪру, ифЎр-ифгрр etc. using only the former (vowel) forms. This rule is applicable in all cases viz., verbal, adjectival and underclinable forms. ¦ч ( ш) and Ўрш (рш) express two distinct sounds in Hindi. First as in words like иш, ЎршЬ etc. and the other in words like ±ргршЪрр, Ёоршгрр etc. The use of these symbols to express these two distinct sounds should continue. Modifications like ±ргрЪЪрр, Ёоггрр etc. are unnecessary. ГрГзрЩр words borrowed from Sanskrit should ordinarily be spelt in their original Sanskrit form. But where the use of Hal sign (right slanting stroke/) has already discontinued in Hindi, words like ЩрирРр (Ррю), тгрЗюгррРр (Ррю), it need not be revived. where the fifth letter of a class of consonants (гр±рб) precedes any of the four remaining letters of the same class, the ЎРрфзгррЬ should be invariably used instead of the fifth letter; e.g. ЎьГр, ЎРЪр; ±рь±рр, гррґЩрЪр; зрьСррЗЁо, зррЩЪр, зрЩЩртГр. Use of nasalisation sign ( ы) (µрьНтьЧрЗх) is sometimes necessary to avoid ambiguity in meaning and to mark out distinction between words like иьзр, иызр, Ўь±рРрр, Ўы±рРрр, etc. But where it is difficult to write or print µрьНтьЧрЗф must necessarily be used in poetry to maintain metric sequence. Similarly, in the primers for children where introduction of µрьНтьЧрЗф is Jesired, µрьНтьЧрЗф must invariably be used e.g. Рриуы, Щрч ы, Щрш ы РрыЗРрьЗРр etc. Words of Arabo-Persian origin which have been adapted in Hindi vocabulary should continue to be used as such e.g. ёрЮЬ. But where their use in innate form is desired, dots (Ррф©Грч) must be used to denote alien origin e.g. Ьрєр, Рррєр. Where use of English words with half-open Ўрш sound is desird, ЎКбµрьН symbol should be placed over Ўр or р as in ЎрщРрЬчЬу and Арщ©ѕЬ. If Sanskrit words with тгрзр±рб (:) have to be used in Hindi in their ГрГзрЩр form, the тгрзр±рб should be placed appropriately as in Зф:®ррРрфШрхтГр. But if such words are to be used in their modified (ГрЗюШргр) form, тгрзр±рб can easily be omitted as in Зф®р-зрф®р Ёчо зррЖру.

Explanatory notes with illustrations

A growing language-Hindi is day-by-day ensuring its status as the official language of the Union. It is heartening to picture Hindi as truly pan-Indian in form and content with closer and closer contact with its counterparts, their literature and the people who wield them for varied aims.

Incidence of parallel forms is a natural phenomenon in a living language. It is inadvisable, therefore, to fetter its course with rigid regimen and grammatical regulation.

Dictums can hardly force particular forms of a parallel labyrinth in currency and opinions must continue to differ on the choice of one or the other.

Nonetheless, conformity to the rules of grammar, syntax and spelling, is the most to be desired, provided it does no hamper progress, nor does it come in the way of effulgence of a language.

Taking all this into account, the Committee-Hindi Varani Samiti-had a catholic approach in formulating principles for standardising Hindi spelling.

The rules emodied in the text of this pamphlet are elaborated here with a few more illustrations.

The rule is clear. The case-sitgns in all types of nouns should be written separately from the stems (СЯртГрСртЗЁо) e.g. ЬрЩр Ррч, ЬрЩр Ёорч, ЬрЩр зрч etc. and злру Ррч, злру Ёорч, злру зрч etc.

But in case of pronouns the case-signs should not be written as separate words but should be joined with the stems e.g. ЈзрРрч, ЈзрЁорч, Јзрзрч etc. The concession and the exception to this rule is also clear and needs no explanation.

The second rule is also clear. Some more examples under this rule are: ёррЪрр ЁоЬГрр иш, ®ррЪрр ЁоЬГрр иш, ёрр зрЁоГрр иш, ЁоЬ зрЁоГрр иш, тЁоЪрр ЁоЬГрр Жрр, СрБяр ЁоЬГрр Жрр, ®рчврр ЁоЬч±рр, ірхЩрГрр Ьич±рр etc. The third rule needs a few more examples for clarification. There are several tuypes of indeclinables in Hindi that denote various types of feelings and senses, e.g. Ўри, Ўрчи, Ўир, ¦ч, иу, Гррч, зррч, Шру, Рр, ёрЧр, ГрЧр, ЁоЧр, Ъриры, гриры, Ёоиры, зрЗр, ©Ърр, еу, ёру, ГрЁо, ШрЬ, Щррлрр, зррЖр, тЁо, тЁьооГрф, Щр±рЬ, врчтЁоРр, µррич Ърр, ЎЖргрр, ГрЖрр, ЪрЖрр, ЎршЬ etc.

Some indeclinables are preceded by case-signs also e.g. ЎЧр зрч, ГрЧр зрч, Ъриры

зрч, гриры зрч, зрЗр зрч etc.

The rule lays down that the indeclinables be written as separate words e.g. ЎрСр иу Ёчо твр¦, Щрф»р ГрЁо Ёорч, ЎрСрЁчо зррЖр, ±рёря ШрЬ ЁоСрАяр, Зчдр ШрЬ, ЬрГр ШрЬ, тЗРр ШрЬ, гри эГрРрр ШрЬ ЁоЬ Зч, Щрф»рч ёррРрч Гррч Зрч, ЁорЩр Шру Рриуь грРрр, Срµррзр ЭСрЪрч Щррлр etc.

The honorific indeclinables еу and ёру should also be written as separate word e.g. еу еуЬрЩр ёру, еу ЁоРишЪррвррвр ёру, ЩрирГЩрр ёру etc.

Indeclinables such as СЯтГр, Щррлр, ЪрЖрр etc. in compounds should not be written separately e.g. СЯтГртЗРр, СЯтГрдрГр, ЩррРргрЩррлр, тРртЩрДрЩррлр, ЪрЖррзрЩрЪр, ЪрЖррчтµрГр etc., for the constituents compounded together are treated as a single compound word. While following the provisions of this rule, the Committee have also provided for a hyphen in between the constituents in cases of co-ordinative compounds and dependent determinative compounds to avoid risk of ambiguity. Rules 4, 5 and 6 are clear. The hyphen is only for clarity. Some examples of co-ordinative compounds are: Зч®р-Ьч®р, µррвр-µрврРр, иызру-ЩрёррЁо, врчРр-ЗчРр, СрБяРрр-твр®рРрр, ®ррРрр-СруРрр, ®рчврРрр-ЁхоЗРрр, etc. Hyphen may be used in between determinative compounds to avoid risk of ambiguity. For example, if a hyphen is not used in the compound word Шрх-ГрДгр (elements or science of earth), it is likely to be confused with ШрхГрДгр meaning `the state of being as element`. In the case of common dependent determinatives as in words like ЬрЩрЬрёЪр, ЬрёрЁфоЩррЬ, ±рь±ррёрвр, ±ЯрЩргррзру, ЎрГЩриГЪрр etc., a hyphen is not necessary at all. Rule& forbids the use of glidal ЎЬ-ЁЬ where it is optional. This prohibition is applicable in respect of all types of words in all cases e.g. Rule 9 is clear. Rule 10 directs that the words borrowed from Sanskrit should ordinarily be spelt in their original Sanskrit form. Accordingly, it would be improper to spell ЧЯиюЩрр as ЧЯйЩрр, тµриюРр as тµрРи, ЈҐВр as ЈтЬВр etc. Similarly, wrong spellings of words as ±ЯиуГр, ИжѕгЪр, СЯЗтдрбРру, ЁортРГргррРрю, ЎГЪрртПрЁо, ЎРрртПрЁорЬ etc. are not acceptable. wherever иврю sign has dropped out of use in words like ЩрирРр (Ррю), тгрЗюгррРр (Ррю) etc., it need not be revived. Rule 11 relates to the use of `fifth letters` (СрьµрЩрркрЬ) and ЎРрфзгррЬ. where fifth letter of a class of consonants (гр±рб) precedes any of the four remaining letters of the same class, the ЎРрфзгррЬ and not the fifth letter should be used; e.g. ±рь±рр, ѕьѕр, зрьСррЗЁо, зрьПрюЪрр, ПрьПрр etc. If the fifth letter precedes any letter of a class (гр±рб) other than its own or repeats itself, it does not change into an ЎРрфзгррЬ but remains as it is, e.g. гррґЩрЪр, ЎРЪр, зрЩЩртГр, тµрРЩрЪр, ЈРЩрф®р etc. Forms like гррьЩрЪр, зрьЩртГр, тьµрЩрЪр, ЈьЩрф®р etc. are incorrect. The Committee has sympathetically considered the question of the use of µрьНтьЧрЗф (a nasal sound expressed by a point in the middle of a digit over a letter) and has provided for its application where necessary. The rule laid down in this respect is quite clear.

Rule 13 and 14 dealing with spellings of Hindi words of English, Arabic persain or any other foreign origin and their peculiar sounds, do not require explanation. However, it is not out of context to reproduce here the recommendation on transliteration of international terms into Devanagari Script, made by the Seminar on the Linguistics of Scientific Terminology organised by the Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology in August-September, 1962 which runs thus:

``The transliteration of English terms should not be made so complex as to necessitate the introduction of new signs and symbols in the present Devanagari characters. The Devanagari rendering of English terms should aim at maximum approximation to the standard English pronunciation with such modifications as are prevalent in the educated circle in India.``

The same recommendation may apply to words adopted from other languages also.

Some Hindi words have two parallel forms in currency, both of which have been generally recognised by scholars in the field, e.g. ±рЬЗРр>±рЗбРр, ±рЬЩру>±рЩруб, ЧрЬТо>ЧрТбо, ЧрЬГрРр>ЧрГрбРр, тЧрврЁфовр>тЧрвЁфовр, зрЬЗу>зрЗуб, ЁфоЬзру>Ёфозруб, ШрЬГру>ШрГруб, ЧрЬЗрдГр>ЧрЗрбдГр, грртСрзр> гррСрзр, Ўр®руЬ>Ўрт®рЬ, ¦Ёорэб>эЁорэб, ЗрчЧррЬр>ЗфЧррЬр etc. Uniformity in the spelling of such words was not considered essential.