’s Life Essay, Research Paper
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) spent all of his life in K?nigsberg, a
small German town on the Baltic Sea in East Prussia. (After World War II,
Germany’s border was pushed west, so K?nigsberg is now called
Kaliningrad and is part of Russia.) At the age of fifty-five, Kant appeared to
be a washout. He had taught at K?nigsberg University for over twenty
years, yet had not published any works of significance.
During the last twenty-five years of his life, however, Kant left a
mark on the history of philosophy that is rivaled only by such towering
giants as Plato and Aristotle. Kant’s three major works are often
considered to be the starting points for different branches of modern
philosophy: the Critique of Pure Reason (1781) for the philosophy of
mind; the Critique of Practical Reason (1788) for moral philosophy; and
the Critique of Judgment (1790) for aesthetics, the philosophy of art.
The Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals was published in
1785, just before the Critique of Practical Reason. It is essentially a short
introduction to the argument presented in the second Critique. In order to
understand what Kant is up to in this book, it is useful to know something
about Kant’s other works and about the intellectual climate of his time.
Kant lived and wrote during a period in European intellectual history
called the “Enlightenment.” Stretching from the mid-seventeenth century to
the early nineteenth, this period produced the ideas about human rights and
democracy that inspired the French and American revolutions. (Some other
major figures of the Enlightenment were Locke, Hume, Rousseau, and
Leibniz.)
The characteristic quality of the Enlightenment was an immense
confidence in “reason”–that is, in humanity’s ability to solve problems
through logical analysis. The central metaphor of the Enlightenment was a
notion of the light of reason dispelling the darkness of mythology and
misunderstanding. Enlightenment thinkers like Kant felt that history had
placed them in the unique position of being able to provide clear reasons
and arguments for their beliefs. The ideas of earlier generations, they
thought, had been determined by myths and traditions; their own ideas were
based on reason. (According to this way of thinking, the French monarchy’s
claims to power were based on tradition; reason prescribed a republican
government like that created by the revolution.)
Kant’s philosophical goal was to use logical analysis to understand
reason itself. Before we go about analyzing our world, Kant argued, we
must understand the mental tools we will be using. In the Critique of Pure
Reason Kant set about developing a comprehensive picture of how our
mind–our “reason”– receives and processes information.
Kant later said that the great Scottish philosopher David Hume
(1711-76) had inspired him to undertake this project. Hume, Kant said,
awoke him from an intellectual “slumber.” The idea that so inspired Kant
was Hume’s analysis of cause-and-effect relationships. When we talk about
events in the world, Hume noted, we say that one thing “causes” another.
But nothing in our perceptions tells us that anything causes anything else. All
we know from our perceptions is that certain events regularly occur
immediately after certain other events. “Causation” is a concept that we
employ to make sense of why certain events regularly follow certain other
events.
Kant took Hume’s idea and went one step further. Causation, Kant
argues, is not just an idea that we employ to make sense of our
perceptions. It is a concept that we cannot help but employ. We don’t sit
around watching events and then develop an idea of causation on the basis
of what we see. When we see a baseball break a window, for instance, we
don’t need to have seen balls break windows before to say that the ball
“caused” the window to break; causation is an idea that we automatically
bring to bear on the situation. Kant argued that causation and a number of
other basic ideas–time and space, for instance–are hardwired, as it were,
into our minds. Anytime we try to understand what we see, we cannot help
but think in terms of causes and effects.
Kant’s argument with Hume may seem like hairsplitting, but it has
huge implications. If our picture of the world is structured by concepts that
are hardwired into our minds, then we can’t know anything about how the
world “really” is. The world we know about is developed by combining
sensory data (”appearances” or “phenomena,” as Kant called them) with
fundamental concepts of reason (causation, etc.). We don’t know anything
about the “things-in- themselves” from which sensory data emanates. This
recognition that our understanding of the world may have as much to do
with our minds as with the world has been called a “Copernican Revolution”
in philosophy–a change in perspective as significant to philosophy as
Copernicus’ recognition that the earth is not the center of the universe.
Kant’s insights posed a severe challenge to many earlier ideas.
Before Kant, for instance, many philosophers offered “proofs” of the
existence of God. One argument made was that there must be a “first
cause” for the universe. Kant pointed out that we can either imagine a world
in which some divine being set the universe in motion, causing all later
events; or we can imagine a universe that is an infinite series of causes and
effects extending endlessly into the past and future. But since causation is an
idea that comes from our minds and not from the world, we cannot know
whether there “really” are causes and effects in the world–let alone whether
there was a “first cause” that caused all later events. The question of
whether there “must” be a first cause for the universe is irrelevant, because it
is really a question about how we understand the world, not a question
about the world itself.
Kant’s analysis similarly shifted the debate over “free will” and
“determinism.” (Kant presents a version of this argument in Chapter 3 of the
Grounding.) Human beings believe that they have “free will”; we feel as
though we may freely choose to do whatever we like. At the same time,
however, the world that we experience is a world of causes and effects;
everything we observe was caused by whatever preceded it. Even our own
choices appear to have been caused by prior events; for instance, the
choices you make now are based on values you learned from your parents,
which they learned from their parents, and so forth. But how can we be free
if our behavior is determined by prior events? Again, Kant’s analysis shows
that this is an irrelevant question. Anytime we analyze events in the world,
we come up with a picture that includes causes and effects. When we use
reason to understand why we have made the choices we have, we can
come up with a causal explanation. But this picture isn’t necessarily
accurate. We don’t know anything about how things “really” are; we are
free to think that we can make free choices, because for all we know this
might “really” be the case.
In the Critique of Practical Reason and the Grounding for the
Metaphysics of Morals, Kant applies this same technique–using reason to
analyze itself–to determine what moral choices we should make. Just as we
cannot rely on our picture of the world for knowledge about how the world
“really” is, so can we not rely on expectations about events in the world in
developing moral principles. Kant tries to develop a moral philosophy that
depends only on the fundamental concepts of reason.
Some later scholars and philosophers have criticized Enlightenment
philosophers like Kant for placing too much confidence in reason. Some
have argued that rational analysis isn’t the best way to deal with moral
questions. Further, some have argued that Enlightenment thinkers were
pompous to think that they could discover the timeless truths of reason; in
fact, their ideas were determined by their culture just as all other people’s
are. Some experts have gone as far as to associate the Enlightenment with
the crimes of imperialism, noting a similarity between the idea of reason
dispelling myth and the idea that Western people have a right and a duty to
supplant less “advanced” civilizations. As we work through the Grounding
for the Metaphysics of Morals, we will return to such criticisms as they
apply to Kant.
Другие работы по теме:
Kant And Disinterestedness Essay Research Paper
“which we Disinterestedness has been a reaccurant theme in aesthetic thought throughout recent times. Kant was one of the first to discribe disinterestedness as an basic and universal part of the aesthetic judgement experiance. However the notion of disinterestedness did not origninate with Kant; it is to be found in the writtings of many Eighteenth centuray philosophers such as Stolinitz, Shaftsbury, Hutcheson, Gerard and Burke.
Kant Goodness Essay Research Paper Kant Goodness
Kant: Goodness Essay, Research Paper Kant: Goodness The philosopher I used is Immanuel Kant. He was very practical in his thinking of goodness. A quote of his was “I ought, therefore I can”. His view
The Architectonic Form Of Kant
’s Copernican System Essay, Research Paper The Architectonic Form of Kant’s Copernican System Human reason is by nature architectonic. That is to say, it regards all our
Kant An Act Of Moral Worth
Essay, Research Paper Jill had been driving down a deserted road when her tire became flat. With no one around for miles she struggled with changing the tire when Jack happened to be driving by and stopped to give her a hand. How and why is this an act of genuine moral worth?
Journalism Today Essay Research Paper Summary Leads
Journalism Today Essay, Research Paper Summary Leads ( Why are they are effective) The summary lead is the most widely used lead. It provides a brief summary of the facts in the article in the first sentence. Summary leads work best in inverted pyramid stories. I think that summary leads are effective because if the reader has an interest in the subject after reading the short summary at the beginning, then they will read the whole article.
How Are Synthetic A Prirori Ju Essay
, Research Paper Kant theorizes that synthetic a priori judgments are conceived before an event occurs. He makes the assumption that these synthetic a priori judgments are plausible without any empirical knowledge, exposure, experience, or any related comprehension. Ergo it is false to assume that synthetic a priori conclusions are not justifiable because the articulation of conscious and unconscious stimuli is an occurrence since birth.
Anselm
’s Ontological Argument Essay, Research Paper As a theologian and philosopher, Saint Anselm strove to prove the existence of God in reality. The bulk of his argument is found in Chapter II of Proslogium.
Kants Morality Essay Research Paper Kant starts
Kant`s Morality Essay, Research Paper Kant starts off making two distinctions regarding kinds of knowledge, empirical/rational and formal/material. Empirical or experience-based knowledge
Duty And Reason As The Ultimate Principle
: Kant Essay, Research Paper Duty and Reason as the Ultimate Principle: Kant Kant claims that only actions from duty have moral worth. In other words, actions from motives other than duty deserve no positive moral evaluation. I like and agree with Kant?s view because I believe that a good will makes a good person.
Is Michelangelo
’s Pieta A Better Work Of Art Than Duchamp’s Fountain Would Kant And Hume Agree??? Essay, Research Paper When one looks at two very different works of art like Michelangelo?s Pieta and Duchamp?s Fountain
What Objections Would A Deonteologist Have Essay
, Research Paper Whereas a teleological theory of ethics holds that an action is right, depending on the consequences; a deonteological theory states that an action is right, depending on the nature of the act itself, or of the intention of the person performing the act. Immanuel Kant, a deonteologist, once said, “It is man’s ability to reason, his own ability to think objectively and apart from his own circumstances and doings, that distinguishes him from all other creatures.” Reason is an innate intellectual power, existing more or less equally in everyone.
Kant Essay Research Paper KANTKant begins to
Kant Essay, Research Paper KANT Kant begins to claim that there is nothing in the world that can be regarded as good without qualification except good will. He says that qualities of temperment such as
Rationality Essay Research Paper Mark KlassJune 1
Rationality Essay, Research Paper Mark Klass June 1, 2000 I believe rationality is incorrectly dictated by society. Generally when one is irrational he or she is contradicting the “normal” or what everyone is programmed to do. Kant says “Can you also will that your maxim should become a universal law.”1 In part I agree to the theory of universal law where “rational” is judged by universality or what everyone should do.
Metaphysis Essay Research Paper Hello I
Metaphysis Essay, Research Paper : Hello: : I need help, I have somes question would help me. 1. do the criticisms that hume makes of Design Arguments all apply to Thomas’ Teleological Argument?
Immanuel Kant
– Enlightenment Essay, Research Paper What is enlightenment? Immanuel Kant attempts to clarify the meaning of enlightenment while composing the essay, “What is Enlightenment?”. This document was written in response to political and social changes brought about by King Frederick of Prussia. The goal of Kant’s essay was to discuss what the nature of enlightenment was.
Mill Vs Kant Essay Research Paper SummaryImmanuel
Mill Vs. Kant Essay, Research Paper Summary Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill are philosophers who addressed the issues of morality in terms of how moral traditions are formed. Immanuel Kant has presented one viewpoint in The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals that is founded on his belief that the worth of man is inherent in his ability to reason.
A Book Report On Kant
’s Fundamental Principles Of The Metaphysic Of Morals Essay, Research Paper Kant states (38,) “act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law of nature”. This “categorical imperative” forms the basis of his book, Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals. Though at times his writing is confusing Kant lays out his logic as to what a categorical imperative is.
Delinquent Daughters Summary Essay Research Paper Delinquent
Delinquent Daughters Summary Essay, Research Paper ?Delinquent Daughters Summary? Delinquent Daughters by Mary E. Odem touches on many topics involving women residing in the U.S. from 1885 to 1920. Not only does the book raise issues about women as a whole, but also it breaks the women into a more realistic view.
American Transcendentalism Essay Research Paper American TranscendentalismTranscendentalism
American Transcendentalism Essay, Research Paper American Transcendentalism Transcendentalism as espoused by Ralph Waldo Emerson is essen tially an idealist philosophy, derived from Kant’s concept of the Tran scendental and opposed to the skepticism of Locke and the Empiricists. In the essay The Transcendentalist, Emerson wrote, “[Kant showed] that there was a very important class of ideas or imperative forms, which do not come by experience, but through which experience was acquired; that these were intuitions of the mind itself; and he denominated them Tran scendental forms.”1 According to Emerson’s understanding of Kant, Transcendentalism becomes a union of solipsism, under which the only verifiable reality is thought to be the self, and materialism, under which the only verifiable reality is the quantifiable external world of objects and sense data.
Discuss The Positive And Negative Aspects Of
Kant?s Idea Of League Of Nations? Essay, Research Paper Along the years, we have witnessed in recent decades the ongoing globalization of world trade, followed by vast rates of investment, and witnessed a new interdependence of the global economic system. The income gap is growing at an unstoppable rate, both within countries and between developed and developing countries.
Immanuel Kant Essay Research Paper Meetesh Patel
Immanuel Kant Essay, Research Paper Meetesh Patel Philosophy Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant is one of the most influential philosophers in the history of western philosophy. His contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics have had a profound impact on almost every philosophical movement that followed him.
Immanuel Kant Vs Joshua Wegner Essay Research
Paper Joshua Wegner Philosophy 101 12/07/00 Trentacoste Immanuel Kant vs. Joshua Wegner THE RIGHT TO PUNISH: RETRIBUTIVISM As a society we all accept the fact that if you do something wrong you must be held responsible for your actions and pay the consequences. We all accept the concept of punishment, even though we are aware that we, ourselves, could one day be subjected to answer for our actions.
Church And State Essay Research Paper Church
Church And State Essay, Research Paper Church and State When I try to think of solutions to world problems in my mind I end up with a headache, in an absolute state of confusion, which brings me right back to the same problem I started out with. It is like a confusing arithmetic problem that I don?t quite understand but all many possible solutions come to my mind, but the light bulb has just not went off yet.
Kant Essay Research Paper How does one
Kant Essay, Research Paper How does one label Kant as a philosopher? Is he a rationalist or an empiricist? Kant makes a distinction between appearances and things in themselves. He also says that things in themselves exist, and that we have no knowledge of things in themselves. This could be labeled “CLOSE TO NONSENSE”, but we know Kant better than that.
Kant Essay Research Paper 18th century German
Kant Essay, Research Paper 18th century German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) presents a criterion of moral obligation, which he calls the categorical imperative. Kant s account of morality fits squarely into the deontological tradition and is found in three principal books: The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), The Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and The Metaphysics of Morals (1798).
Kant Essay Research Paper Immanuel Kant was
Kant Essay, Research Paper Immanuel Kant was a sound, grounded philosopher of the Enlightenment. His explanations were black and white, clear-cut, which may be seen as his greatest attribute, as well as his worst flaw. The drive behind all of Kant’s ideas was reason. To Kant, morality was a matter of rational, acting morally equaled acting rationally.
Metaphysics By Kant And Hume Essay Research
Paper Metaphysics as Addressed by Kant and Hume In the Prolegomena, Kant states that reading David Hume, “awakened him from his dogmatic slumber.” It was Hume’s An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding that made Kant aware of issues and prejudices in his life that he had previously been unaware of. This further prompted Kant to respond to Hume with his own analysis on the theory of metaphysics.
Kant Essay Research Paper Immanuel Kant 17241804
Kant Essay, Research Paper Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) had an interesting ethical system for reasoning. It is based on a belief that the reason is the final authority for morality. In Kant?s eyes reason is directly correlated with morals and ideals. Actions of any sort, he believed, must be undertaken from a sense of duty dictated by reason, and no action performed for appropriateness or solely in obedience to law or custom can be regarded as moral.
Mill And Kant Tell Us To Think
For Ourselves Essay, Research Paper Immanuel Kant simply stated the creed of the enlightenment: ?Dare to know,? (Kant 1). To thinkers like Kant, to achieve enlightenment was to ?gain release from?self-incurred tutelage?[the] inability to make use of [one?s] understanding without direction from another,? (Kant 1).
Kant S Ethics Essay Research Paper Kant
Kant S Ethics Essay, Research Paper Kant s Ethics In the Metaphysics of Ethics (1797) Kant described his ethical system, which is based on a belief that the reason is the final authority for morality. Actions of any sort, he believed, must be undertaken from a sense of duty dictated by reason, and no action performed for expediency
Summary And Responce To
“Black English” Essay, Research Paper Summary and Response Word Count 366 Summary In the essay titled, ?If Black English Isn?t a Language, Then Tell Me, What Is??
Kant
’s Fundamental Principles Of The Metaphysics Of Moral Essay, Research Paper Kant’s Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Moral The central concept of Kant’s Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of